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AGRICULTURE  LIBRARY 


IDAHO  STATE  BOARD 
CULTURE 


OF 


HORTI- 


! 


A MANUAL  OF  HORTICULTURE  FOR 
THE  STATE  OF  IDAHO 


t 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


https://archive.org/details/manualofhorticulOOmcph 


Manual  of  Horticulture 

Idaho 


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McTNTOSTT  RED 


A Manual  of  Horticulture 

FOR  THE 

STATE  OF  IDAHO 


COMPILED  BY 

JOHN  u.  McPherson 

STATE  INSPECTOR 


19  13 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE 

IDAHO  STATE  BOARD  OF 
HORTICULTURE 


BOISE  IDAHO 


DESIGNED  AND  PRINTED 
THROUGHOUT  IN  IDAHO  BY 


TlieGatoo 

Printers  I 


1 

7498 


Colored  Plates  Printed  by  The  Caxton  Printers. 


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CONTENTS. 


Report  of  State  Inspector  7 

Financial  Report  of  Secretary  11 

Report  of  State  Bee  Inspector  15 

Geological  History  of  Idaho  17 

By  J.  M.  Aldrich. 

Physical  Features  of  Idaho  21 

By  Elias  Nelson. 

Climate  of  Idaho  25 

By  Edw.  L.  Wells. 

Native  Vegetation  of  Idaho  35 

By  J.  M.  Aldrich. 

Idaho  Irrigation  Methods  39 

By  Don  H.  Bark. 

Principles  and  Methods  of  Irrigation  47 

By  Elias  Nelson. 

Fruit  for  Home  Use  55 

By  T.  A.  Allen. 

Fruit  By-products  59 

By  C.  J.  Sinsel. 

By-Products  G2 

By  Fremont  Wood. 

Commercial  Fruit  Growing  in  Idaho  05 

By  John  U.  McPherson. 

Prune  Industry  in  Idaho  71 

By  C.  J.  Sinsel. 

European  Grapes  in  the  Clearwater  Valley  75 

By  Robert  Schleicher. 

Science  of  Grading  and  Packing  Apples  89 

By  Roy  C.  Brock. 

Principal  Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits  in  Idaho  101 

Compiled  by  John  U.  McPherson. 

Principal  Fungus  Diseases  of  Fruits  in  Idaho  129 

Compiled  by  John  U.  McPherson. 

Control  of  Pear  Blight  141 

By  P.  J.  O’Gara. 

Preparation  of  Spraying  Materials  183 

Compiled  by  John  U.  McPherson. 

Reports  of  District  Inspectors  193 

By  the  Deputy  Inspectors. 

Appendix^ — Description  of  Colored  Plates  215 


0/11  04 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Plate  I. — McIntosh  Red  Apple  {Full  Colors)  Frontisipece 

Plate  II. — Bartlett  Pear  {Full  Colors)  16 

Plate  III. — Map  of  Idaho,  showing  normal  annual  precipitation  ....  25 

Plate  IV. — Map  of  Idaho,  showing  normal  annual  isotherms 32 

Plate  V. — White  Winter  Pearmain  Apple  {Full  Colors) 40 

Plate  VI. — Winesap  Apple  {Full  Colors)  48 

Plate  VII. — Yellow  Newton  Apple  {Full  Colors)  65 

Plate  VIII. — Italian  Prune  {Full  Colors)  72 

Plate  IX. — View  in  the  Vineyard  of  Robert  Schleicher  80 

Plate  X. — Delicious  Apple  {Full  Colors)  89 

Plate  XI. — Fig.  1,  56  apples;  Fig.  2,  72  apple;  Fig.  3,  72 
apples;  Fig.  4,  80  apples;  Fig.  5,  96  apples; 

Northwest  Standard  Box  92 

Plate  XII. — Fig.  1,  96  apples;  Fig.  2,  112  apples.  North- 
west Standard  Box;  Fig.  3,  112  apples;  Fig. 

4,  120  apples;  Fig.  5,  158  apples.  Northwest 

Special  Box  92 

Plate  XIII. — Fig.  1,  128  apples.  Northwest  Special  Box; 

Fig.  2,  138  apples;  Fig.  3,  160  apples;  Fig.  4, 

165  apples.  Northwest  Standard  Box  92 

Plate  XIV. — Fig.  1,  Manner  of  starting  the  three  and  one- 
half-tier  pack;  Fig.  2,  Side  view  of  box  after 

nailing  96 

Plate  XV. — Fig.  1,  Nailing  Press,  best  type;  Fig.  2,  North- 
west Greening  Apple  96 

Plate  XVI. — Manner  of  Packing  Boxes  in  a Car  96 

Plate  XVII. — Idaho  Apples,  Commercial  Pack  98 

Plate  XVIII. — Comice  Pear  {Full  Colors)  101 

Plate  XIX. — San  Jose  Scale  102 

Plate  XX. — Fig.  1,  The  Codling  Moth;  Fig.  2,  Woolly  Aphis  108 

Plate  XXL — Fig.  1,  Mytilaspis  Pomorum;  Fig.  2,  Peach 

Twig  Borer  112 

Plate  XXII. — Fig.  1,  Cottony  Maple  Scale;  Fig.  2,  Flat- 
headed Apple  Tree  Borer;  Fig.  3,  The  Grape 

Phylloxera  120 

Plate  XXIII.— Wealthy  Apple  {Full  Colors)  129 

Plate  XXIV. — Grimes  Golden  Apple  {Full  Colors)  136 

Plate  XXV. — Jonathan  Apple  {Full  Colors)  144 

Plate  XXVI.^ — Fig.  1,  Wrong  Form  of  Pear  Tree;  Fig.  2, 

Result  of  Growing  a Tree  with  Central  Leader; 

Fig.  3,  A Bad  Crown  Infection  on  Spitzenberg 

Apple;  Fig.  4,  Body  Infection  of  Bartlett  Pear 152 

Plate  XXVII. — Fig.  1,  Bartlett  Pear  Tree  Showing  Blight 
Eradicated  from  the  Body;  Fig.  2,  A Bad  Infec- 
tion of  the  Body  and  Root  System;  Fig.  3, 

Crown  Gall  on  Branch  of  Spitzenberg  Apple; 

Fig.  4,  Spitzenberg  Infected  with  Pear  Blight  161 

Plate  XXVIII.— Elberta  Peach  {Full  Colors)  176 

Plate  XXIX.— Wagner  Apple  {Full  Colors)  193 

Plate  XXX.— Anjou  Pear  {Full  Colors)  200 

Plate  XXXI. — Rome  Beauty  Apple  {Full  Colors)  208 

Plate  XXXII.— Gano  Apple  {Full  Colors)  224 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


Boise,  Idaho,  December  31,  1912. 

Honorable  James  H.  Hawley, 

Governor  of  Idaho,  Boise,  Idaho. 

My  Dear  Sir — I have  the  honor  to  present  to  you  the 
biennial  report  of  the  State  Horticultural  Inspector,  and 
the  secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspec- 
tion, together  with  the  reports  of  the  Deputy  Inspectors. 

Examination  of  these  reports  will  show  that  the  fruit 
industry  has  advanced  rapidly  in  the  last  two  years.  The 
State  Inspector  reports  that  the  fruit  crop  of  Idaho  for 
1912  was  of  a value  of  three  millions  of  dollars,  and  it  is 
certain  that  the  production  will  increase  rapidly  from  year 
to  year  until  our  fruit  crop  will  be  one  of  the  main  re- 
sources of  revenue  for  the  people  of  our  state,  as  it  is 
already  the  product  which  advertises  the  state  more  than 
any  other  one  thing. 

You  will  notice  that  the  fruit  acreage  has  now  reached 
a total  of  142,773  acres,  with  a probable  increase  in 
the  coming  two  years. 

The  Board  concurs  in  the  recommendations  of  the 
State  Inspector  regarding  the  changes  in  the  horticultural 
law.  We  feel  that  we  should  be  able  to  allot  sufficient 
sums  of  money  to  each  district  so  that  the  necessary  in- 
spection work  can  be  carried  on  the  year  round.  We 
also  trust  that  the  legislature  will  recognize  the  growing 
importance  of  the  work,  and  will  make  this  department 
an  appropriation  of  $50,000  which  is  necessary  to  carry 
on  the  work. 

All  of  which  is  respectfully  submitted. 

Chas.  P.  Hartley, 

President  Idaho  State  Board 
of  Horticultural  Inspection. 


STATE  BOARD  OF  HORTICULTURAL  INSPECTION 


Henry  W.  Dorman,  President Caldwell 

John  U.  McPherson,  Secretary  Boise 

B.  F.  Hurst Boise 

Robert  Schleicher  Lewiston 

John  D.  C.  Kruger St.  Anthony 

D.  L.  INGARD  Fruitland 


STATE  HORTICULTURAL  INSPECTOR 


John  U.  McPherson 


Boise 


REPORT  OF  THE  STATE  HORTICULTURAL 
INSPECTOR. 


To  the  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection: 

I submit  for  your  approval  my  report  as  State  Horti- 
cultural Inspector  for  the  years  1911  and  1912. 

I feel  that  the  work,  as  a whole,  has  been  of  a benefit 
to  not  only  the  fruit  growers  of  this  state  but  to  the  people 
of  the  state  at  large.  It  has  been  my  honest  endeavor  to 
strictly  enforce  the  horticultural  laws  up  to  that  point 
where  it  was  of  the  greatest  benefit  to  the  fruit  industry 
of  the  state,  and  also  to  see  that  every  dollar  that  was 
appropriated  by  the  state  for  this  work  has  been  expended 
for  the  direct  benefit  of  the  horticultural  industry  of  the 
state,  and  I believe  that  the  class  of  fruit  which  was  raised 
and  shipped  from  the  state  this  year  is  evidence  that  this 
work  has  been  of  a benefit.  I do  not  believe  that  there 
has  been  a year  in  the  history  of  the  state  that  the  fruit 
has  been  so  free  from  insect  pests  and  disease,  and  I wish 
at  this  time  to  thank  and  commend  the  good  work  of  the 
growers  of  the  state  for  their  co-operation  in  spraying 
and  in  the  general  care  given  their  orchards.  The  depart- 
ment has  carried  on  a very  rigid  inspection  of  all  nursery 
stock  within  the  state,  as  well  as  upon  all  stock  which  has 
been  shipped  into  the  state.  During  1911  a great  many 
thousand  trees  were  condemned  and  burned  which  had 
been  shipped  in  from  adjoining  states.  The  stock  of  the 
year  1912  showed  a marked  turn  toward  the  better,  and 
I am  satisfied  that  our  work  of  1911  caused  the  outside 
nurserymen  to  ship  in  better  stock  than  heretofore.  This 
phase  of  the  inspection,  however,  has  been  a very  dis- 
agreeable one  for  the  reason  that  our  funds  were  very 
low  for  this  work.  While  the  law  provides  that  the 
inspection  of  all  incoming  stock  shall  be  paid  for  by  the 
receiver  of  such  stock,  still  at  the  same  time  it  often 


8 State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

occurred  that  the  deputy  inspector  had  to  travel  some 
distance  to  inspect  this  stock  and  oftentimes  the  inspection 
charges  would  amount  to  more  than  the  stock  was  worth, 
and  in  that  event  the  state  had  to  stand  some  of  the 
expense,  this  amount  coming  out  of  the  general  fund,  and 
in  that  way  it  decreased  our  working  capital  considerably. 
It  is  my  opinion  that  this  inspection  of  nursery  stock 
should  be  paid  for  by  the  state  as  it  is  of  benefit  to  all  the 
state  and  not  only  to  the  receiver  of  the  stock.  The 
inspection  of  incoming  nursery  stock  should  be  carried 
on  more  rigidly  in  the  coming  years  than  it  has  in  the 
past.  Each  year  the  fruit  growers  of  the  state  are  put 
to  an  enormous  expense  in  spraying  for  the  various  pests 
which  we  now  have,  all  of  which  were  introduced  into  the 
state  on  incoming  nursery  stock,  and  it  is  necessary  that 
all  other  pests  which  are  liable  to  be  introduced  be  kept 
out  through  this  inspection. 

I also  wish  to  recommend  that  the  horticultural  law  be 
strengthened  to  such  a point  that  we  will  be  able  to  quaran- 
tine other  states  for  keeping  out  infested  stock  in  a more 
direct  manner.  I am  certain  that  the  late  controversy  with 
California  in  regard  to  the  alfalfa  weevil  shows  an  evi- 
dence of  this  need.  The  past  two  years  we  have  kept  a 
very  close  watch  on  all  seedling  stock  for  the  gypsy  and 
browntail  moth.  We  have  found  several  instances  of  the 
same  in  different  parts  of  the  state,  and  the  stock  was 
immediately  destroyed,  and  I do  not  believe,  at  this  time, 
that  there  are  any  of  these  pests  to  be  found  within  the 
state. 

It  will  be  shown  by  the  following  financial  statement 
that  this  department  has  had  funds  available  for  its 
biennial  term  of  1911  and  1912  amounting  to  $32,060.95. 
Of  this  amount  the  state  appropriated  $23,600.00,  and  the 
balance  of  $8,460.95  has  been  taken  in  by  the  department 
in  the  way  of  fines,  fees  and  licenses,  as  well  as  by  appro- 
priations from  nine  counties  in  the  state  towards  this  work, 
and  I believe  that  the  board,  as  a whole,  owe  the  different 
counties  a vote  of  thanks  for  their  kind  and  considerate 
co-operation  in  the  inspection  work.  The  various  county 
officials,  upon  petitions  placed  before  them  signed  by  fruit 


Repor't  of  State  Inspector 


9 


growers  of  their  respective  counties,  knowing  that  the 
funds  of  the  department  were  limited,  and  realizing  the 
importance  of  the  work,  took  it  upon  themselves  to  assist 
us  and  granted  the  sums  asked  for  in  the  petitions.  With- 
out this  assistance  from  the  various  counties  the  work 
could  not  have  been  carried  on. 

During  the  past  two  years  we  have  issued  150  firm 
licenses,  and  we  have  somewhere  near  500  nursery  agents 
in  the  state. 

In  closing  I wish  to  make  this  recommendation — in  the 
past  two  years  the  acreage  in  Idaho  planted  to  fruit  has 
doubled,  and  with  each  coming  year  more  and  greater 
demands  will  be  made  upon  this  department  to  assist  in 
the  horticultural  work,  and  funds  must  be  available  to 
carry  it  on.  As  has  been  shown  by  the  financial  report  we 
have  had  approximately  $32,000.00  for  this  work.  While 
I consider  that  we  have  made  a showing  with  this  amount 
of  money,  still  at  the  same  time  it  is  not  nearly  enough 
to  carry  on  the  work  as  it  should  be.  The  deputy 
inspectors  throughout  the  state  have  not  been  able  to  make 
a living  from  the  salaries  paid  them  for  their  work,  and 
it  is  impossible  to  expect  to  keep  men  who  are  able  and 
competent  to  do  this  work  if  they  cannot  be  paid  for  their 
services,  and  I wish  to  recommend  at  this  time  that  the 
salary  of  each  deputy  in  the  state  be  placed  at  the  rate 
of  $100.00  per  month,  when  actually  employed  in  the 
discharge  of  duties,  and  allow  them  $2.50  per  day  for 
actual  expenses.  In  this  way  competent  men  can  be 
secured  and  kept  for  this  work,  while  under  the  present 
conditions  there  is  nothing  sure  as  to  the  length  of  time 
they  are  to  work  and  the  pay  they  are  to  receive.  The 
state  of  Idaho  is,  at  this  time,  the  third  in  number  of  acres 
planted  to  orchard  in  the  northwest,  and  is  fourth  in  the 
number  of  cars  shipped,  and  our  fruit  crop  this  last  year 
of  1912  is  valued  at  $3,000,000. 

Fruit  growing  is  one  of  the  leading  industries  of  the 
state  while  on  the  other  hand  there  is  less  money  appro- 
priated for  the  inspection  work  of  this  state  than  in  any 
other  state  of  the  northwest,  and  a great  many  states. 


10 


state  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspectiou 


which  have  a much  smaller  acreage,  and  where  the 
number  of  cars  of  fruit  shipped  does  not  amount  to  half 
as  many  as  the  cars  shipped  from  Idaho,  are  receiving 
more  for  inspection  work  in  one  year  than  Idaho  receives 
for  two  years. 

I wish  to  thank  the  members  of  the  horticultural  board 
for  the  many  kindnesses  which  they  have  shown  me  during 
my  term  as  state  inspector,  and  the  honest  co-operation  and 
backing  in  strict  enforcement  of  the  law. 

I hope  that  your  honorable  body  will  approve  of  the 
work  of  the  past  two  years  and  the  recommendations  which 
I have  offered,  all  of  which  I respectfully  submit  to  your 
honorable  body. 

J.  U.  McPherson, 

State  Horticultural  Inspector. 


FINANCIAL  REPORT  OF  SECRETARY. 


Boise,  Idaho,  December  1,  1912, 
The  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection,  Boise,  Idaho. 

Gentlemen — I herewith  submit  my  report  covering  dis- 
bursements of  the  funds  of  the  Board  from  January  1, 
1911,  to  December  1,  1912.  This  report  includes  the 
salary  of  the  state  inspector,  traveling  and  office  expenses, 
as  well  as  the  per  diem  of  the  deputy  inspectors;  also 
the  expenses  of  the  Board  while  attending  meetings: 


1911— 

John  U.  McPherson,  state  inspector,  salary $ 1,725.00 

John  U.  McPherson,  state  inspector,  expenses 

stamps,  etc.,  942.80 

General  office  expense,  including  stenographer  ..  1,158.27 

Printing  bulletins  167.50 

C.  P.  Hartley,  Pres.  Board,  attending  meetings  72.50 

J.  R.  Field,  salary  one  month  as  state  insp 150.00 

M.  B.  Sherman,  board  member,  expense  at- 
tending meetings  51.75 

Robt.  Schleicher,  board  member,  expense  at- 
tending meetings  90.50 

0.  F.  Smith,  board  member,  expense  at- 
tending meetings  60.00 

Wm.  Buckley,  insp.  Dist.  No.  1 574.00 

Samuel  Mayne,  asst.  insp.  Dist.  No.  1 32.00 

W.  C.  Edmundson,  insp.  Dist.  No.  2 435.00 

G.  E.  Ames,  insp  Dist.  No.  3 565.00 

D.  A.  Smith,  asst.  insp.  Dist.  No.  3 7.50 

H.  T.  Murray,  insp.  Dist.  No.  4 501.00 

H.  M.  Williams,  asst,  insp  Dist.  No.  4 20.00 

T.  W.  Hanan,  asst.  insp.  Dist.  No.  4 11.00 

J.  S.  Hogue,  asst  insp.  Dist.  No.  4 8.00 

A.  J.  Stuart,  asst.  insp.  Dist.  No.  4 10.00 

F.  L.  Featherston,  inspector  District  No.  5 100.54 


12 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


D.  B.  Webber,  inspector  District  No.  5 622.00 

A.  R.  Ingalls,  inspector  District  No.  6 137.50 

L.  E.  Newcomb,  inspector  District  No.  6 1.007.43 

Thos.  Hance,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  6 164.00 

A.  B.  Kern,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  6....  64.00 

J.  Bradfield,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  6..  60.00 

Robt.  Hyslop,  inspector  District  No.  7 80.00 

Edgar  Meek,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  7 20.00 

Edgar  Meek,  inspector  District  No.  7 736.00 

Harry  Meek,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  7 100.00 

G.  J.  Taylor,  inspector  District  No.  8 405.00 

B.  E.  Rayburn,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  8 132.00 

B.  E.  Rayburn,  inspector  District  No.  8 880.00 

H.  P.  Ashby,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  8.—  379.00 

C.  W.  Brannan,  inspector  District  No.  9 1,098.35 

B.  F.  Flesher,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  9 33.20 

C.  B.  Dull,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  9.—  24.50 

Carl  Walters,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  9 26.25 

Tage  Carlson,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  9 69.90 

John  Adams,  inspector  District  No.  10  120.00 

Wm.  Morgan,  inspector  District  No.  11  200.00 

J.  G.  Nelson,  inspector  District  No.  12  415.00 

W.  T.  Hawkey,  inspector  District  No.  13  612.00 

R.  E.  Harris,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  13  12.00 

K.  Parkinson,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  13  17.60 

Homer  Chaffee,  inspector  District  No.  14  285.00 

H.  Ostrander,  asst,  inspector  District  No.  14  ....  16.00 


Total  $14,399.09 

1912— 

John  U.  McPherson,  state  inspector,  salary  $ 2,375.00 

John  U.  McPherson,  exp.  traveling,  stamps,  etc...  1,217.00 
General  office  expense,  including  stenographer  ....  1,467.25 

Printing  bulletins,  etc.,  93.00 

J.  R.  Field,  board  member  6.35 

Robert  Schleicher,  board  member  39.45 

John  D.  C.  Kruger,  board  member  72.14 

Wm.  Buckley,  inspector  District  No.  1 440.00 

W.  F.  Scott,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  1 30.35 


Financial  Report  of  Secretary  13 

Samuel  Mayne,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  1 54.75 

W.  C.  Edmundson,  inspector  District  No.  2 595.00 

W.  M.  Herman,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  2 5.00 

G.  E.  Ames,  inspector  District  No.  3 602.50 

O.  G.  Ogsbury,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  3 2.40 

A.  N.  Sager,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  3.—  3.40 

Henry  T.  Murray,  inspector  District  No.  4 476.00 

John  A.  Powell,  inspector  District  No.  4 102.00 

T.  W.  Hanan,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  4..  48.00 

J.  S.  Hogue,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  4....  42.50 

A.  J.  Stuart,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  4.—  50.95 

H.  C.  Oliver,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  4—.  6.13 

F.  T.  Moore,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  4....  11.50 

D.  B.  Webber,  inspector  District  No.  5 787.50 

L.  E.  Newcomb,  inspector  District  No.  6 210.00 

A.  B.  Kern,  inspector  District  No.  6 920.00 

James  Kinzer,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  6 75.00 

J.  Bradfield,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  6 42.00 

Edgar  Meek,  inspector  District  No.  7 795.25 

C.  L.  Park,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  7 122.50 

J.  D.  Bloomfield,  asst,  inspector  District  No.  7 129.55 

H.  P.  Ashby,  inspector  District  No.  8 1,057.40 

F.  L.  Rickey,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  8 44.20 

B.  E.  Rayburn,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  8 25.00 

W.  M.  Funstan,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  8 68.00 

George  Fenton,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  8 151.45 

C.  W.  Brannan,  inspector  District  No.  9 748.60 

A.  J.  Milner,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  9 75.50 

C.  B.  Dull,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  9 114.30 

Robt.  Simpson,  asst,  inspector  Distdict  No.  9 --  14.00 

A.  P.  Senior,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  9 91.00 

B.  F.  Flesher,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  9 18.50 

A.  J.  Mye,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  9. 17.80 

B.  F.  Hays,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  9 9.00 

John  Adams,  inspector  District  No.  10  110.00 

T.  J.  Evans,  inspector  District  No.  11  451.00 

R.  H.  Christensen,  asst,  inspector  Dist.  No.  11  ....  43.95 

P.  A.  Hanson,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  11  28.00 

John  Norton,  inspector  District  No.  12  424.00 

W.  T.  Hawkey,  inspector  District  No.  13  258.00 


14 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


H.  T.  Brengman,  inspector  District  No.  13  563.94 

H.  E.  Fisher,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  13  12.00 

I.  C.  Smith,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  13....  55.75 

K.  Parkinson,  assistant  inspector  District  No.  13  33.00 

Homer  Chaffee,  inspector  District  No.  14  250.00 


Total  $15,486.86 


Total  expenditures,  1911  $14,399.09 

Total  expenditures,  1912  to  Dec.  1 15,486.86 


Total  from  Hort.  fund,  biennial  term..  29,885.95 

Funds  as  appropriated  by  state 23,600.00 

Hort.  insp.  fund,  fees,  fines,  licenses..  4,979.09 
Hort.  and  Bee  fund,  1911  and  1912....  1,306.86 

Appropriated  by  counties,  1911 600.00 

Appropriated  by  counties,  1912  1,575.00 

County  Claims,  1911  600.00 

County  claims,  1912,  to  Dec.  1 785.85 

Balance,  county  funds,  1912  789.15 


$32,060.95  $32,060.95 

Respectfully  submitted, 

John  U.  McPherson, 

Secretary  State  Board  Hort.  Imp. 


REPORT  OF  STATE  BEE  INSPECTOR 


Hon.  James  H.  Hawley, 

Governor^  of  Idaho,  Boise,  Idaho. 

My  Dear  Governor — According  to  law  the  work  of  the 
State  Bee  Inspection  is  handled  through  the  Horticultural 
Department,  and  the  State  Horticultural  Inspector  is  ex- 
ofRcio  State  Bee  Inspector. 

There  are  some  25  deputy  bee  inspectors  in  the  state, 
some  of  whom  work  for  what  might  be  termed  the  good  of 
the  state,  as  the  funds  for  this  work  have  been  very 
limited  and  some  of  the  inspectors,  knowing  this,  have 
asked  to  be  appointed  merely  as  a matter  of  protection  to 
their  neighborhood,  or  in  some  cases,  their  own  bees. 

There  is  a great  deal  of  foul  brood  in  some  localities 
in  the  state,  and  in  one  place  an  inspector  reported  that  a 
bee  keeper’s  colonies  had  been  reduced  from  145  to  30 
because  of  the  infection.  The  inspectors  in  all  cases 
report  that  the  diseased  bees  were  destroyed,  or  treated, 
as  the  cases  required.  Another  inspector  reported  that  he 
found  several  cases  of  European  or  Black  Brood  in  bees 
that  were  being  shipped  into  Idaho.  Still  another  reported 
that  he  had  destroyed  55  stands  and  another  that  all  the 
shipments  that  he  inspected  were  absolutely  clean. 

It  is  very  evident  that  the  work  of  the  state  bee 
inspection  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  a man  who  has 
time  to  look  after  the  work,  and  that  it  should  be  taken 
from  the  horticultural  department,  which  has  enough  to  do 
in  the  fruit  line.  The  bee  industry  in  the  state  has  come 
to  be  a very  important  one,  and  the  annual  output  of 
honey  amounts  to  a great  many  thousands  of  dollars,  and 
the  many  bee  keepers  are  entitled  to  more  protection 
than  they  have  had  in  the  past  two  years.  They  should 
have  a department  of  their  own  and  a state  bee  inspector 
whose  only  duties  would  be  to  look  after  the  bee  industry. 


16  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

It  is  utterly  impossible  for  the  horticultural  department 
to  carry  on  this  work  as  it  should  be  done  on  account  of 
the  horticultural  interests.  I recommend  that  the  work 
of  bee  inspection  be  placed  by  itself,  and  maintained  as 
before  stated.  In  closing  I wish  to  thank  the  bee  keepers 
and  the  deputies  for  their  work  under  the  adverse  con- 
ditions of  the  past  two  years  and  to  assure  them  of  my 
co-operation  in  every  way  for  the  betterment  and  advance- 
ment of  the  bee  industry. 

The  bee  inspection  work  has  been  allowed  $2,000  for 
the  two  years  of  inspection  and,  December  1,  of  this 
amount,  $1,346.45  had  been  used. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

J.  U.  McPherson, 

State  Bee  Inspector. 


1'.’-  ■■ 

"•  rf’.i'i'-* 


ATajuial  of  TTorl  icii  1 1 nro,  Tdnlio. 


IM.ATIO  II. 


iJAirrLF/rT  vkau 


CHAPTER  1. 


THE  GEOLOGICAL  HISTORY  OF  IDAHO. 

BY  J.  M.  ALDRICH. 

The  State  of  Idaho  lies  entirely  on  the  western  side  of 
the  watershed  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a small  area  in  the  southeastern  part,  which 
lies  in  the  Great  Salt  Lake  Basin,  is  entirely  drained  by 
the  Columbia  River  and  its  branches,  principally  by  the 
Snake  River.  The  main  mountain  system  of  the  state 
lies  along  its  northeast  border,  comprising  the  Bitter 
Root  and  a part  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  chains,  which 
give  off  several  branches  extending  westward  and  south- 
westward  into  the  central  part  of  the  state.  The  Salmon 
River,  rising  near  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  state  and 
flowing  nearly  due  west,  lies  between  two  extensive  moun- 
tainous regions.  The  Salmon  River  Mountains  on  its 
south  are  among  the  highest  in  the  state,  and  they  extend 
in  a southeastern  direction,  merging  with  the  Sawtooth 
range,  which  are  still  higher  and  comprise  the  highest 
peaks  in  Idaho.  These  ranges  contain  the  sources  of 
several  of  the  important  irrigating  streams  of  the  state. 
East  of  them  are  several  parallel  ranges  between  which 
flow  Lost  River,  Little  Lost  River  and  some  other  streams. 
Along  the  east  line  of  the  state  is  an  elevated  region  with 
several  small  ranges  of  mountains,  which  also  run  to  the 
southeast.  Along  the  south  line  of  the  State  are  two  or 
three  still  smaller  ranges. 

The  most  extensive  agricultural  region  of  the  state  is 
the  Snake  River  Plain  of  southern  Idaho,  which  extends 
almost  the  entire  width  of  the  state.  Within  the  limits 
of  the  Great  Salt  Lake  Basin,  in  the  southern  part  of 
Idaho,  there  is  a section  of  comparatively  small  area,  of 
valuable  agricultural  land.  In  the  northern  part  of  the 
state  the  agricultural  land  lies  mostly  rather  near  to  the 
western  border. 

From  an  agricultural  or  horticultural  point  of  view  the 


18 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


climate  and  soil  are  the  principal  features  of  importance. 
These,  however,  are  directly  dependent  upon  the  altitude 
and  other  physical  features  which  will  be  considered  in  the 
present  chapter. 


ALTITUDE. 

The  northern  part  of  Idaho,  as  a whole,  has  much  lower 
altitude  than  the  southern  part,  and  the  southeastern  part 
is  highest  of  all.  In  southern  Idaho  the  line  of  5,000  feet 
elevation  shows  very  nearly  the  limit  of  agricultural  possi- 
bilities, as  the  climate  at  a higher  altitude  is  generally 
too  cold  for  successful  agriculture  and  the  land  usually 
too  rough  for  tillage.  In  northern  Idaho  the  limit  might 
well  be  drawn  at  a lower  level,  say  3,000  feet.  For  agricul- 
tural purposes  little  of  this  land  is  available,  and  for  horti- 
cultural purposes,  still  less.  The  only  exceptions  of  import- 
ance are  the  following:  In  Bear  Lake  county,  which  is  en- 
tirely above  the  5,000  foot  level,  considerable  agriculture  is 
carried  on  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lake  and  a little  fruit  is 
raised.  Another  exception  is  northeast  of  St.  Anthony 
where  alfalfa  is  raised  for  a few  miles  above  the  limit. 
In  the  vicinity  of  Bellevue  and  Hailey  there  is  some  agri- 
culture and  some  fruit  raising. 

GEOLOGICAL  HISTORY. 

Many  of  the  features  of  the  different  arable  regions 
of  Idaho  can  be  best  understood  by  a brief  explanation  of 
the  geological  formation  which  characterizes  them.  All 
the  tillable  land  in  Idaho  which  lies  within  the  Salt  Lake 
Basin  was  at  one  time  under  the  waters  of  a vast  fresh 
water  lake,  of  which  the  present  Great  Salt  Lake  is  only 
a disappearing  remnant.  This  lake  had  its  outlet  in  a 
stream  which  flowed  along  a channel  at  present  existing, 
through  Pocatello,  into  the  Snake  River.  From  some 
cause,  probably  a decrease  of  rainfall  in  the  regions  sur- 
rounding the  lake,  this  outlet  in  the  course  of  time  went 
dry  and  the  lake  began  to  diminish  in  size,  gradually 
becoming  more  and  more  filled  up  with  salt  until  it 


Geological  History  of  Idaho 


19 


reached  its  present  condition.  That  portion  of  the  old 
c-eu  in  the  state  of  Idaho  consists  partly  of  almost  level 
bottom  land,  and  partly  of  a slope  situated  much  higher 
along  the  foot  of  the  mountains.  These  two  are  connected 
by  a much  steeper  slope  which  can  scarcely  be  plowed. 
The  upper  slope  referred  to  was  originally  just  below  the 
shore  of  the  lake,  in  shallow  water.  It  is  distinguished 
at  the  present  time  as  being  a region  adapted  to  dry 
farming,  while  the  lower  level  requires  irrigation. 

In  the  Snake  River  Valley  there  are  two  quite  distinct 
formations.  From  Weiser  up  to  the  eastern  limit  of  Ada 
county,  and  extending  still  farther  east  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Snake  River,  is  a region  which  is  also  the 
ancient  bed  of  an  extensive  lake.  The  shore  line  of  this 
lake  cannot  be  positively  traced  along  the  edge  of  the 
mountains  as  can  the  one  just  referred  to.  How  far 
east  it  originally  extended  is  unknown.  The  soil  is  largely 
of  an  alluvial  character.  It  is  supposed  that  this  lake 
was  caused  by  the  damming  up  of  the  outlet,  probably  at 
the  time  when  the  Blue  Mountains  of  Oregon  were 
elevated  to  their  present  position.  This  turned  back  the 
waters  of  the  Snake  River  for  a period  of  time,  producing 
a lake  in  the  area  described.  Ultimately  the  rise  of  the 
waters  carried  them  over  the  top  of  the  elevation  which 
nature  had  placed  in  their  way  and  after  this  they 
rapidly  wore  down  a channel  through  the  mountains, 
thus  draining  the  lake  which  had  been  formed.  The 
eastern  boundary  of  this  lake  will  forever  remain  uncer- 
tain from  the  fact  that  the  entire  area  east  of  Ada  county 
was  subsequently  the  scene  of  numerous  eruptions  resulting 
in  an  outflow  of  lava  which  spread  in  the  form  of  layers 
of  basalt  over  the  central  and  eastern  Snake  River  Plain 
almost  as  far  east  as  the  state  line.  There  were  several 
distinct  periods  of  eruption  with  intervals  between,  per- 
haps centuries  long,  in  which  shallow  layers  of  soil 
accumulated.  In  some  parts  of  this  region  these  eruptions 
continued  until  quite  recent  times,  giving  to  the  section 
west  of  Blackfoot  and  Idaho  Falls  its  present  character 
of  a rocky  desert,  which  is  due  to  the  fact  that  sufficient 


20  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

time  has  not  elapsed  since  the  last  outflow  to  permit  of  the 
formation  of  a depth  of  soil  over  its  surface.  Much  of  the 
Snake  River  Plain,  however,  has  now  become  so  old  that 
an  abundance  of  soil  exists  and  in  fact  some  of  the 
choicest  land  to  be  found  anywhere  is  in  this  very  section. 

Turning  to  North  Idaho  we  find  two  chapters  of  equal 
interest.  The  region  of  Latah  and  Nez  Perce  counties 
was  the  scene  of  volcanic  outflows  at  an  even  earlier  time 
than  those  of  South  Idaho,  and  to  a greater  depth.  The 
sheet  of  basalt  at  Lewiston  is  more  than  1,100  feet  deep, 
and  Lewiston  has  an  altitude  of  1,600  feet  less  than  that 
of  Latah  county,  which  would  indicate  that  the  latter  is 
underlaid  at  least  along  its  southern  border  by  a depth  of 
something  like  2,500  feet  of  volcanic  material.  Lastly, 
the  soils  of  Kootenai  county  as  far  south  as  the  north  end 
of  Coeur  d’Alene  lake  were  deposited  at  a much  later  date, 
namely,  in  the  glacial  period.  Then  immense  glaciers 
filled  those  valleys  and  when  they  thawed  they  left  them 
filled  to  a depth  of  hundreds  of  feet  with  the  rocks  and 
other  material  which  they  had  borne  upon  their  surface 
in  their  advance  southward.  The  disintegration  of  the 
surface  of  this  mass  gradually  formed  a soil  which,  by 
the  addition  of  humus  and  further  disintegration  ulti- 
mately developed  into  one  well  adapted  to  horticulture. 


CHAPTER  11. 


THE  PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  IDAHO. 

BY  ELIAS  NELSON. 

Sagebrush  plains,  high,  snow-capped  mountains  and 
timbered  plateaus  are  some  of  the  salient  features  of  the 
state.  In  climate  it  presents  all  gradations  from  the  high 
altitudes  and  short  seasons  of  Wyoming  to  the  mild  cli- 
mate of  the  Columbia  river  uplands.  The  far  eastern  por- 
tion of  the  state  approximates  the  climatic  conditions  of 
the  central  Rocky  mountain  states.  The  Snake  river 
plains  extend  nearly  across  southern  Idaho  as  a rudely 
crescent-shaped  area  concave  to  the  north.  This  is  an 
arid  region  with  a gradually  decreasing  altitude  westward 
and  a climate  more  hospitable  to  fruits  as  the  western 
border  is  approached.  It  is  a vast  agricultural  region  with 
several  million  acres  of  irrigated  lands. 

The  southern  border  is  more  or  less  mountainous.  The 
southeast  portion  contains  a number  of  short  mountain 
ranges  and  the  agricultural  lands  here  are  mostly  above 
4,600  feet  altitude.  In  the  southwest  corner  lie  the 
Owyhee  mountains  and  their  lateral  spurs  and  foothills 
extend  almost  to  the  Snake  river. 

To  the  north  of  the  Snake  river  plains  and  throughout 
central  Idaho  from  the  continental  divide  on  the  east  to 
the  Snake  river  on  the  west  are  extensive  mountain  areas 
where  high  altitudes  obtain. 

The  northern  part  of  the  state  is  distinctly  humid  and 
more  or  less  covered  with  extensive  forests.  Large  areas 
of  fine  agricultural  lands  are  found  here.  The  altitude  is 
relatively  low  and  though  350  miles  north  of  the  Snake 
river  plains  the  climate  is  comparatively  mild. 

Practically  the  whole  of  the  state  is  drained  by  the 
Snake  river  and  other  tributaries  of  the  Columbia.  The 
Snake  river  rising  in  the  Yellowstone  park  describes  a 


22  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

wide  curve  to  Weiser  on  the  western  border  and  thence 
flows  in  a northerly  direction  to  Lewiston.  This  great 
stream  and  certain  tributaries  furnish  water  for  nearly 
all  the  irrigation  projects  in  southern  Idaho. 

Over  the  southern  or  arid  portion  of  the  state  the 
annual  precipitation  ranges  from  9 to  15  inches  and 
irrigation  is  a general  practice.  In  the  “Panhandle’'  or 
humid  section  there  is  an  annual  precipitation  of  from 
15  to  25  inches.  Here  irrigation  is  not  a distinct  neces- 
sity. 

Differences  in  altitude  and  climatic  conditions  naturally 
divide  the  state  horticulturally  into  several  distinct  regions. 

PAYETTE-BOISE  REGION. 

We  would  thus  designate  the  lower  Snake  river  plains 
and  include  nearly  all  of  Canyon  and  Ada  counties  and 
portions  of  Elmore,  Owyhee  and  Washington  counties. 
This  is  the  oldest  as  well  as  the  foremost  of  the  horticul- 
tural sections  of  the  state.  The  common  sagebrush  is  the 
predominant  vegetation  on  these  plains.  There  is  but 
little  grass  and  the  soil  is  nearly  bare,  hence  the  soil  is 
lacking  in  humus  and  nitrogen,  a deficiency  which  is 
readily  corrected  by  the  culture  of  the  legumes.  The 
prevailing  type  of  soil  on  these  plains  is  a light-colored 
clay  loam  with  more  or  less  pure  clay  in  the  subsoil.  This 
soil  though  somewhat  stubborn  at  first  becomes  highly 
productive  when  thoroughly  subdued. 

The  annual  precipitation  ranges  from  10  to  14  inches. 
The  altitude  is  from  2,100  to  2,700  feet. 

The  horticultural  possibilities  are  varied  and  the  mild 
climate  imposes  but  few  limitations.  It  should  be  noted, 
however,  that  but  few  of  the  more  hardy  European  grapes 
succeed;  also,  that  conditions  favor  the  production  of  a 
prune  of  exceptional  quality.  In  the  apple  line  it  is  a 
region  for  the  Jonathan,  Rome  Beauty  and  Winesap  which 
are  the  leaders. 


TWIN  FALLS  REGION. 


The  region  comprising  the  plains  on  either  side  of  the 


Physical  Features  of  Idaho 


23 


Snake  river  from  Bliss  to  American  Falls  has  much  in 
common  with  the  lower  Snake  river  plains.  The  native 
vegetation  is  the  same,  the  altitude  greater,  or  3,000-4,500 
feet,  and  the  rainfall  a trifle  less. 

The  soil  on  these  plains  is  a clay  loam  of  seolian  origin. 
This  dust  deposit  laid  down  by  the  wind  is  deep,  fine,  and 
generally  homogeneous  throughout.  This  is  the  prevailing 
type  of  soil  in  this  region. 

This  is  a region  of  vast  and  extensive  irrigation  im- 
provements during  the  past  eight  years.  Horticulturally 
its  development  has  just  begun,  hence  the  limitations  as  to 
varieties  and  classes  of  fruits  cannot  be  so  well  defined. 
However,  owing  to  the  greater  altitude  and  less  summer 
heat  commercial  orcharding  must  here  naturally  be  less 
varied  than  in  the  Boise  and  Payette  valleys. 

UPPER  SNAKE  RIVER  VALLEY. 

The  upper  Snake  river  valley  in  Bingham  and  Fremont 
counties  has  an  altitude  of  4,500-5,500  feet.  On  account  of 
the  high  altitude,  relatively  short  season  and  somewhat 
rigorous  climate  fruit  culture  is  chiefly  confined  to  hardy 
fruits  such  as  pears,  sour  cherries,  American  plums  and 
quite  a varied  list  of  apples.  Certain  varieties  of  apples, 
among  them  the  Winesap,  while  hardy  enough,  do  not 
attain  sufficient  size  in  this  region  to  be  grown  com- 
mercially. 


FOOT-HILLS  REGION. 

Under  this  head  may  be  mentioned  certain  foothill 
locations  in  Washington  and  Ada  counties  at  altitudes 
ranging  from  2,900  to  3,400  feet  where  fruit  growing  is 
rather  more  successful  than  at  similar  altitudes  on  the 
Snake  river  plains.  Such  locations  are  Council  Valley, 
Indian  Valley  and  the  country  about  Sweet,  as  well  as 
other  similar  localities.  The  sagebrush  so  common  on  the 
plains  here  gives  place  to  buckbrush  (Purshia),  wild 
cherry,  serviceberry  and  rabbitbrush.  The  soils  are  gen- 
erally either  alluvial  or  residual  and  a common  type  is  a 
clay  loam  with  an  admixture  of  coarse  sand.  The  annual 


24  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

precipitation  is  12-15  inches,  hence  irrigation  is  necessary 
except  where  the  land  is  sub-irrigated.  The  chief  com- 
mercial fruits  here  are  apples,  pears  and  peaches. 

SNAKE  RIVER  CANYON. 

The  Snake  river  canyon  from  near  Weiser  to  Lewiston 
has  a climate  all  its  own.  Higher  temperatures  obtain 
here  and  at  Lewiston  the  low  altitude  of  757  feet  is 
reached.  At  Lewiston  and  in  many  sheltered  coves  along 
the  canyon  the  European  grapes  flourish  and  sweet  cher- 
ries and  peaches  find  conditions  congenial  to  perfect  de- 
velopment. These  canyon  locations  with  their  light  soils 
requiring  irrigation  are  well  suited  to  the  culture  of  the 
less  hardy  fruits. 

THE  ‘^PANHANDLE’’  OR  HUMID  REGION. 

This  region  is  more  or  less  heavily  timbered  with  white 
and  yellow  pine  and  red  fir.  Tamarack,  alder,  birch  and 
willows  occur  on  the  moister  lands  and  in  some  localities 
cedar  is  found.  The  wild  cherry,  serviceberry,  wild  roses, 
syringia  and  wolfberry  abound  in  the  forests  and  on  the 
partially  open  lands. 

The  soil  on  the  rolling  hills  and  table  lands  of  Latah 
county  is  of  basaltic  origin  while  that  on  the  plateaus  and 
gravelly  plains  of  Kootenai  and  Bonner  counties  has  been 
formed  in  ages  past  by  the  disintegration  of  glacial  drifts. 

From  18  to  25  inches  of  precipitation  falls  annually, 
which  amount  is  sufficient  for  successful  orcharding  with- 
out irrigation.  The  altitude  is  1,200-2,500  feet  which  is 
low  as  compared  with  that  of  the  agricultural  sections  of 
southern  Idaho. 

Owing  to  greater  humidity,  apple  scab  which  is  scarcely 
known  in  southern  Idaho  is  quite  prevalent  here.  Not 
much  is  made  of  the  prune  here  and  the  Winesap  apple 
is  not  one  of  the  leading  commercial  sorts,  its  place  with 
the  Jonathan  and  Rome  Beauty  being  taken  by  the 
Wagener. 


Manual  of  Horticulture,  Idaho. 


PLATE  HI. 


Map  of  IDAHO 

Showing  Normal  Annual  Precipitation 
based  on  the 

Records  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau 


SCALE  OF  SHADES:  (inches) 

□ Less  than  10  Inches 
10  to  15  Inches 
15  to  20  inches 
20  to  25  Inches 
More  than  25  Inches 


2^  20  IS 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE  CLIMATE  OF  IDAHO. 

Edward  L.  Wells. 

Section  Director,  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 

Idaho  is  a state  of  vast  extent  and  wide  diversity  of 
topography.  It  extends  from  the  42nd  to  the  49th  parallel 
of  latitude,  or  as  far  as  from  Ontario  to  Georgia;  Paris, 
in  Bear  Lake  county,  and  Porthill,  in  Bonner  county,  are 
as  far  apart  as  Wichita,  Kansas  and  Vicksburg,  Mississ- 
ippi. The  altitude  ranges  from  that  of  central  and 
northern  Indiana  to  more  than  five  thousand  feet  above 
the  highest  peaks  of  the  Appalachian  system.  Along  a 
portion  of  its  eastern  border  lie  the  Cabinet,  Coeur 
d’Alene,  Bitter  Root  and  Beaverhead  ranges  of  mountains, 
and  a section  of  the  main  range  of  the  Rockies,  while 
extending  out  from  these,  and  lying  in  every  conceiv- 
able direction  are  countless  other  ranges.  The  only 
large  area  of  level  land  is  that  which  comprises  the  Snake  ^ 
River  Plain,  which  extends  practically  across  southern 
Idaho. 

The  entire  state  comes  under  the  modifying  influence 
of  the  equable  climate  of  the  north  Pacific  Ocean,  and  is 
protected,  to  a large  extent,  from  the  severe  cold  waves 
which  prevail  east  of  the  great  mountain  barrier,  while 
in  many  places  Chinook  winds  play  an  important  part  in 
determining  the  temperature.  The  northern  part  of  the 
state  is  well  within  the  path  of  the  areas  of  low  baro- 
metric pressure  that  move  in  from  the  north  Pacific 
and  pass  eastward  across  the  country,  while  the  southern 
part  lies  well  out  of  that  path. 

These  complex  factors  go  to  make  such  a wide  diver- 
sity of  climate  that  description  is  extremely  difficult  and 
accurate  graphic  representation  impossible.  The  normal 
annual  temperature  ranges  from  about  36  degrees  in  the 


26  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

mountains  in  the  interior  to  about  55  degrees  along  the 
middle  reaches  of  the  Snake  River.  This  is  a range  equal 
to  that  found  in  traveling  from  Moorhead,  Minnesota  to 
Fredericksburg,  Virginia.  The  normal  annual  precipita- 
tion ranges  from  about  eight  inches  along  the  middle 
reaches  of  the  Snake  River  to  about  40  inches  in  the 
Bitter  Root  mountains.  This  is  a range  greater  than  that 
found  in  going  from  Albany,  New  York  to  Phoenix, 
Arizona. 

Over  large  areas  there  is  a long  growing  season  and 
a climate  well  adapted  to  the  growing  of  fruit,  and  there 
are  localities  where  even  tender  fruits,  such  as  European 
grapes,  are  grown  successfully,  and  such  nuts  as  the 
English  walnut  promise  good  returns.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  some  of  the  more  elevated  sections,  freezing 
weather  may  occur  every  month  in  the  year.  There  are 
several  counties  where  in  one  end  snow  sometimes  re- 
mains throughout  the  summer,  while  in  the  other,  snow 
enough  for  sleighing  is  a rare  occurrence. 

TEMPERATURE. 

As  has  already  been  said,  it  is  impossible  to  make  an 
accurate  graphic  representation  of  any  feature  of  Idaho 
climate,  hence  in  considering  the  accompanying  charts  it 
should  be  remembered  that  they  give  only  a general  idea 
of  the  distribution  of  temperature  and  precipitation  but 
do  not  portray  local  conditions. 

By  comparing  the  accompanying  chart  of  mean  annual 
isotherms  with  a topographic  map  of  the  state  it  will  be 
seen  that  there  is  a very  noticeable  relation  between  alti- 
tude and  temperature,  although  this  relation  is  not  con- 
stant. The  coldest  part  of  the  state,  comprising  the 
area  enclosed  by  the  isotherm  of  36,  includes  a small 
section  in  the  sparsely  settled  mountainous  regions  in  the 
interior.  What  is  said  of  this  area  applies,  in  part  at  least, 
to  the  higher  peaks  of  the  Bitter  Root,  Beaverhead, 
Seven  Devils  and  Owyhee  Mountains.  In  these  sections 
the  climate  is  characterized  by  cold,  snowy  winters  and 
short,  cool  summers.  The  snow  accumulates  to  great 


Climate  of  Idaho 


27 


depths  in  winter  and  sometimes  remains  in  sheltered 
places  throughout  the  summer.  There  are  occasional 
warm  periods  in  mid-day  in  summer,  but  the  summer 
evenings  are  uniformly  cool  enough  to  make  a fire  enjoy- 
able, while  frost  may  occur  in  mid-summer. 

Somewhat  warmer  than  the  mountainous  regions  are 
the  extensive  plateaus  and  high  valleys  that  make  up  a 
considerable  part  of  the  central  and  extreme  eastern 
portions  of  the  state.  On  these  plateaus  and  in  these 
valleys  the  winters  are  cold  and  the  summers  are  short, 
but  still  long  enough  to  permit  a good  growth  of  grasses 
and  ordinarily  of  sufficient  length  to  enable  the  staple 
grains  to  come  to  maturity.  The  normal  annual  tem- 
perature in  this  section  ranges  from  40  degrees  to  43 
degrees,  comparing  closely  with  that  found  in  northern 
Wisconsin. 

The  great  Snake  River  Plain  of  southern  Idaho,  to- 
gether with  the  lower  valleys  of  the  streams  that  join 
the  Snake  during  its  course  through  this  Plain,  includes 
what  will  soon  be  the  greatest  irrigated  area  in  the  world. 
The  eastern  part  of  this  Plain,  together  with  portions  of 
the  country  draining  into  Great  Salt  Lake,  have  a 
climate  characterized  by  moderately  cool  winters  and 
moderately  warm  summers.  The  normal  annual  tem- 
perature of  this  section  ranges  from  43  degrees  to  47 
degrees,  which  is  about  the  temperature  found  in  southern 
Minnesota.  Here  the  staple  grains,  grasses  and  vegetables 
find  a temperature  ideally  suited  to  their  needs  while  in 
many  places  the  hardy  fruits  grow  to  perfection. 

The  western  part  of  this  Plain,  together  with  the  lower 
valleys  of  such  streams  as  the  Big  Wood,  Boise,  Payette, 
Weiser  and  Bruneau,  have  a climate  characterized  by 
mild  winters  and  by  summers  that  include  some  hot 
days,  but  in  which  the  nights  are  ordinarily  cool  and 
pleasant.  The  normal  annual  temperature  ranges  from 
47  degrees  to  55  degrees,  and  compares  closely  with  the 
temperature  found  in  Missouri  and  southern  Iowa.  In 
this  area  there  is  found  a combination  of  climatic  con- 
ditions that  is  highly  favorable  for  the  production  of 
apples,  prunes,  pears,  cherries  and  melons,  while  in  some 


28  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

localities  peaches,  European  grapes  and  English  walnuts 
are  successfully  grown.  There  is  seldom  any  damage  from 
winter-killing,  and  the  abundant  sunshine  during  the 
grooving  and  ripening  season,  with  the  crisp,  cool  morn- 
ings of  the  autumn,  combine  to  produce  the  finest  colored 
fruits  the  world  has  seen. 

The  northern  part  of  the  state,  outside  of  the  moun- 
tains, consists  largely  of  rolling  hills,  and  has  a normal 
annual  temperature  ranging  from  44  degrees  to  53  de- 
grees, which  is  about  the  temperature  found  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. Its  climate  is  well  adapted  to  the  growing  of  grain 
and  the  hardj^  fruits,  and  some  of  the  lower  valleys, 
notably  in  the  vicinity  of  Lewiston,  produce  abundant 
crops  of  the  tender  fruits.  That  the  climate  is  adapted  to 
the  growing  of  berries  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  many 
species  are  found  in  a wild  state.  It  is  believed  that  the 
marshes  along  the  Kootenai  and  St.  Joe  rivers  would 
produce  cranberries. 

In  comparing  the  temperature  of  any  section  of  Idaho 
with  that  of  an  eastern  state  it  should  be  remembered 
that  in  Idaho  there  is  less  difference  between  summer  and 
winter  and  a greater  difference  between  day  and  night 
than  is  found  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

In  discussing  climate  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  horti- 
culturist it  is  important  to  consider  the  probability  of 
the  occurrence  of  low  temperature  at  times  when  the 
fruit  is  susceptible  to  injury  therefrom.  Fall  frosts 
are  scarcely  a factor  to  be  reckoned  with  in  the  fruit- 
growing regions  in  Idaho,  as  ordinarily  fruit  is  mature 
before  they  occur.  But  the  occurrence  of  freezing  tem- 
perature during  the  period  of  blossoming  and  setting  is 
one  of  the  problems  to  be  faced. 

A killing  frost  is  one  that  is  destructive  to  the  staple 
crops  of  the  locality.  Just  how  low  the  temperature  must 
fall  to  cause  injury  to  the  tender  bud,  the  open  flower  or 
the  embryo  fruit  is  a question  upon  which  scientists  and 
practical  orchardists  are  alike  divided,  and  is  one  that 
depends  upon  so  many  factors,  such  as  the  condition  of 
the  tree,  the  exact  state  of  the  advancement  of  the 
fruit,  the  length  of  time  during  which  it  is  exposed  to  the 


Climate  of  Idaho 


29 


temperature  in  question  and  the  conditions  under  which 
thawing  takes  place,  that  it  may  not  soon  be  answered 
satisfactorily.  In  the  absence  of  sufficient  data  with 
regard  to  the  effects  of  spring  frosts  it  is  often  necessary 
for  the  Weather  Bureau  to  take  the  last  date  with 
freezing  temperature  and  call  that  the  date  of  the  last 
killing  frost.  Fruits,  at  least  except  at  the  most  critical 
times,  will  stand  a temperature  considerably  below  the 
freezing  point  without  serious  injury.  This  fact  should 
always  be  borne  in  mind  when  considering  tables  of 
killing  frost,  such  as  the  one  accompanying  this  article. 

The  problem  of  preventing  injury  from  frost  is  being 
carefully  studied  by  the  fruit  growers  of  the  state,  with 
such  assistance  from  the  Weather  Bureau  as  the  limited 
funds  at  its  disposal  will  permit.  Four  things  are  particu- 
larly needed.  First,  accurate  foreknowledge  of  the  occur- 
rence of  injurious  temperatures;  Second,  a scientific  in- 
vestigation of  the  effect  of  various  temperatures  at  differ- 
ent stages  of  the  fruit;  Third,  a scientific  investigation  of 
the  merits  of  different  protective  methods ; Fourth,  an 
accurate  temperature  survey  of  every  valley  in  the  state 
that  gives  promise  of  producing  fruit.  Careful  plans 
are  being  made  to  meet  the  first  need.  A frost  warning- 
service  is  being  organized  which,  with  proper  co-operation 
on  the  part  of  the  growers  and  telephone  companies,  will 
be  of  great  value.  An  attempt  toward  meeting  the 
fourth  need  has  been  made  by  the  establishment  of 
numerous  observation  stations  throughout  the  state,  but 
the  small  number  of  stations  that  can  be  established 
and  maintained  under  the  present  appropriation  leaves 
much  to  be  desired.  At  present  nothing  can  be  done 
to  meet  the  second  and  third  needs,  but  it  is  understood 
that  plans  are  being  made  to  cover  this  field. 

In  short,  while  the  occurrence  of  spring  frosts  fur- 
nishes the  greatest  climatic  obstacle  to  the  progress  of 
horticulture  in  Idaho,  it  is  by  no  means  an  unsurmountable 
one.  Several  peculiarities  of  the  climate  of  the  south- 
western valleys  are  especially  favorable  for  orchard  heat- 
ing. One  of  these  is  the  fact  that  the  spring  frosts  are 
largely  the  result  of  surface  radiation,  and  therefore  occur 


30  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

only  on  still,  clear  nights,  when  conditions  for  orchard 
heating  are  favorable.  When  there  is  either  wind  or 
cloudiness  frost  does  not  occur.  Then,  too,  the  temper- 
ature seldom  goes  more  than  a few  degrees  below  the 
danger  point,  and  does  not  reach  that  point  till  well 
toward  morning,  so  that  the  period  of  injurious  tem- 
perature is  short. 


PRECIPITATION. 

The  local  variations  in  precipitation  are  greater  and 
more  complex  than  the  variations  in  temperature.  In  the 
preparation  of  the  accompanying  chart  showing  the  mean 
annual  precipitation  all  available  records  have  been  con- 
sidered, and  in  the  more  open  portions  of  the  state  the 
actual  local  conditions  are  probably  very  nearly  as  repre- 
sented by  the  chart.  In  the  mountanous  regions,  however, 
there  are  probably  many  localities  where  the  precipitation  is 
greater  or  less  than  the  amount  indicated  by  the  chart 
of  the  general  district. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  precipitation  is  gov- 
erned, to  a large  extent,  by  altitude,  but,  as  has  already 
been  said,  it  is  by  no  means  constant.  For  instance. 
Soldier,  in  Blaine  county,  and  Bandore,  in  Washington 
county,  have  about  the  same  altitude.  Soldier  has  an 
annual  precipitation  of  about  15  inches,  while  the  amount 
at  Bandore  is  about  38  inches.  In  general  it  may  be 
said  that  the  precipitation  is  greatest  in  the  mountainous 
regions  and  least  on  the  open  plains.  The  wettest  re- 
gions includes  the  Cceur  d^Alene  and  Bitter  Root  moun- 
tains, while  portions  of  the  Seven  Devils  are  almost  as 
wet.  The  dryest  portion  is  along  the  Snake  River  in 
the  southwestern  portion  of  the  state,  while  parts  of  the 
region  of  lost  rivers  and  the  immediate  valley  of  the 
Salmon  river  are  very  dry,  when  elevation  is  considered. 
The  rolling  lands  and  lands  in  the  foothills  appear  to  have 
a greater  amount  of  precipitation  than  level  lands  at  the 
same  elevation. 

In  different  parts  of  Idaho  there  are  many  different 
types  of  precipitation  distribution.  Over  a considerable 


Climate  of  Idaho 


31 


part  of  the  state  the  distribution  conforms  in  a general 
way  to  the  Sub-Pacific  type,  but  there  are  many  local 
departures  from  this  type.  In  the  Coeur  d’Alene  Moun- 
tains and  thence  northward  the  maximum  precipitation 
occurs  in  November,  with  a secondary  maximum  in  May. 
South  and  west  of  this  area  and  over  a region  extending 
to  the  southwestern  part  of  the  state  the  heaviest  precipi- 
tation is  in  December  or  January,  with  a secondary  max- 
imum in  May.  In  parts  of  central  and  eastern  Idaho,  the 
principal  maximum  is  in  May  or  June,  with  the  secondary 
maximum  ranging  from  November  to  March.  The  driest 
part  of  the  year  over  most  of  the  state  is  July  or 
August.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  in  those  parts  of 
the  state  where  the  temperature  conditions  are  most 
favorable  for  the  production  of  fruit  there  is  a very  light 
rainfall  in  the  summer  and  therefore,  the  various  opera- 
tions of  cultivating,  spraying,  etc.,  are  not  likely  to  be 
interferred  with. 

The  winter  precipitation  usually  occurs  in  small 
amounts,  at  frequent  intervals.  What  precipitation  occurs 
in  summer  comes  in  showers,  but  the  intensity  of  the  rain- 
fall is  much  less  than  is  found  in  the  state  farther  south 
in  the  intermountain  region,  and  cloud-bursts,  so-called, 
are  a rare  occurrence. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Thunderstorms  sometimes  occur,  but  they  are  usually 
light  and  of  short  duration.  Loss  of  life  or  property 
from  lightning  occurs  very  rarely.  Tornadoes  are  practi- 
cally unknown.  The  average  hourly  wind  movement  at 
Boise  and  Lewiston  is  about  five  and  one-half  miles,  while 
at  Pocatello  and  Idaho  Falls  it  is  about  eight  and  one- 
half  miles. 

There  is  considerable  cloudiness  in  winter,  particularly 
in  the  western  counties,  but  in  summer  there  is  an  abun- 
dance of  sunshine.  The  average  amount  of  sunshine  at 
Pocatello  ranges  from  about  44  per  cent  of  the  possible 
amount  in  February  to  86  per  cent  in  August.  At  Boise 
it  ranges  from  about  33  per  cent  in  January  to  87  per  cent 


32 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


in  July.  No  sunshine  records  have  been  kept  in  northern 
Idaho,  but  the  record  at  Spokane,  Wash.,  shows  that  the 
amount  in  that  section  ranges  from  about  18  per  cent 
in  December  to  77  per  cent  in  July. 

In  this  article  it  has  been  possible  to  treat  of  the 
climate  of  Idaho  only  in  a general  way.  Persons  desiring 
more  explicit  information  are  invited  to  address  the  local 
office  of  the  Weather  Bureau  at  Boise. 

resulLo  L. 


Table  Showing,  Dates  of  Killing  I^'rosts  at  Various  Points  in  Idaho. 


Name  of 
Station 

Average 
date  of 
last  killing 
frost  in 
spring. 

Average 
date  of 
earliest 
killing 
frost  in 
fall 

Date  of 
latest  kill- 
ing frost 
knowii 

Date  of 
earliest 
killing 
frost 
knov/n 

American  Falls  .... 

May  24  

Sept.  13  

July  1 

Aug. 

20  

Fllackfoot  

May  30  

Sept.  10  

July  5 

Aug. 

20  

Boise  

April  25  

Oct.  20  

June  5 

Sept. 

24  

Bonners  Ferry  .... 

May  9 

Sept.  i5  

May  26  

Aug. 

24  

Cambridge  

May  20  

Sept,  li  

June  24  

Aug. 

22  ...... 

Drigers  

June  21  

Sept.  2 

July  13  

Aug. 

11  

Grangeville  

May  13  

Sept.  29  

May  21  

Sept. 

17  

Hailev  

June  6 

Sept.  13  

July  15  ..  .. 

Aug. 

30  

Idaho  City  

June  27  

Sept.  5 

July  4 

Aug. 

15  

Idaho  Falls  

May  21  

May  16  

April  8 

Sept.  8 

June  20  ..  .. 

Aug. 
Aug. 
Oct.  : 

25  . ... 

Kellogg  

Sept.  17  

Oct.  28  

May  23  

28 

Ijewiston  

April  29  

2 

Mackay  

Mav  28  

Sept.  11  

June  22  

Aug. 

25  

Meadows  

June  18  

Aug.  29  . ... 

June  28  

Aug. 

16  

.Moscow  

May  10  

Oct.  12  

May  30  

Sept. 

23  

Mountainhome  .... 

May  4 

Sept.  13  

May  21  

Aug. 

25  

Oakley  

Oro  Fino  

May  30  

Sept.  17  

July  7 

Aug. 

21  

May  2 

Oct.  11  

June  20  

Sept. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Sept. 

25  

Paris  

.June  14  

Sept.  5 

Sept.  29  

Oct.  11  

July  16  

11  

Payette  . 

May  8 

April  24  

June  23  

14  

F-’ocatello  

May  13  

15  

Salmon  

May  16  

Sept.  12  

June  20  

Aug. 

26  

Shoshone  

May  5 

Sept.  21  

May  17  

Sept. 

5 

Sugar  

May  28  

Sept.  20  

June  28  

Aug. 

.25  

'Pwin  Falls  

May  16  

Sept.  27  

May  21  

Sept. 

5 

Weston  

June  1 

Sept.  12  

June  25  

Aug. 

11  

Manual  of  Horticulture,  Idaho. 


PLATH  IV. 


r‘ ! 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE  WEATHER  BUREAU. 


Climate  of  Idaho 


33 


3 


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lOOCiiHCDOTtH'^<Nl'^i-l'^U^OOOq(MCOCOt-OOTHa)rH«5  0lC<Mir3t-<X> 

Mar. 

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lO(Ml>‘a500rH^CC>OC<JiHCOOOCQTf‘OI^'^OOCOCOOOC<l<rC<5'^H^ir50l> 

CO'^CO<NCOCOTt^OOCOCOCOCqcOCO'^COCOCOCOCO'«fCQ'^CO'^CO<MCO'^CO 

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t>*COC^OCiCOI>-iHCOrHT-i'^OlCCCC5THOOTHaiTt<a>COOOt>»C^TH  OC^rH  ^ 
C^COC^C^C^IC^lCCCOC^JC^lC^r-ICOC^OOi-iCOC^ICOC^ICOTHCCC^lCOC^lOqC^CCCQ 

Jan. 

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-^05e0a5«5O'^Or-l00r-lT}«00C<l-^?0a5lfta5t-00<3500U5'^C0<T>t-l>l« 

«^OqC^TH<>qC^«)CO(Nr-l<MTHOq<MSOrHC<l(Me^(rClC<li-((M(Me>5(Mr-lrHC<l(M 

Stations 

American  Falls  

Boise  

Cambridge  

Chesterfield  

Coeur  d’Alene  

Forney  

Garnet  

Grangeville  

Hailey  

Idaho  Falls  

Irwin  

Lake  

Lakeview  

Landore  

Lewiston  

Lost  River  

Moscow  

Murray  

Oakley  

Ola  

Oro  Fino  

Paris  

Payette  

Pocatello  

Pollock  

Porthill  

Roosevelt  

Salmon  

Twin  Palls  

Weston  

OP  AGRICUIiTURE  WEATHER  BUREAU. 


34 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


Annual 

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1 

Sept. 

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OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOrHOOOOOOOOOOOrH 

July 

OOOOTH(MO>00(MO<M(M-^eOTHOOWt>lOOOe>3THCD-.^<iHe*3tHOOOO'*.«OC» 

■>!i<THeo'i<«oOTHC^'<*'Looot-oooT}<u5t^coT»<'^ianc>eo«ou50'^oocouD 

OOOOOT-fOTHOOOOiHOOOOiHOOOOOOOrHrHOOO 

June 

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May 

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UOCqCDOOOOOOCDlO'^CDCOir5I>»OOCD'^Tt<CqTHCDCDC^THC<lrHOTHOTHCO 

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Apr. 

1 

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Mar. 

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Feb. 

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(M-^T-l05C<l«e00«Di-l(rqO05«>iHC0'^TH«C00r-lTHC<IC000r-IOC0'^<Me0 

THr-(COO(MiHOTH(MiH.HtHCqTj<,HO(rOeCOe<500i-lT-IOlH(MCOOrHlH 

Jan. 

1 

T-i05a5irtM<ct>.<0(MT-iooe«3t>.rHOoajr-iiMt-cDi;oM<(Mccc<ioo.HTHecoo 

L£500'.l<'fC^<000THOC~e0MT-H05U5Ot-t-05Wt-«C>«5«00000C0t-t-«C 

THrHOOiHeOTHOC^'tiT-li-ie<lMU5iHTHC<l'»fO<M(rQTHT-IOOC<IC<IOrHrH 

Stations 

American  Falls  

Boise  

Cambridge  

Chesterfield  

Coeur  d’Alene  

Forney  

Garnet  

Orangeville  

Hailey  

Idaho  Falls  

Irwin  

Lake  

Lakeview  

Landore  

Lewiston  

Lost  River  

Moscow  

Murray  

Oakley  

Ola  

Oro  Fino  

Paris  

Payette  

Pocatello  

Pollock  

Porthill  

Roosevelt  

Salmon  

Twin  Falls  

Weston  

CHAPTER  IV. 


NATIVE  VEGETATION  OF  IDAHO. 

BY  PROF.  F.  M.  ALDRICH. 

This  subject  we  shall  consider  only  in  its  general  fea- 
tures, with  the  purpose  of  illustrating  more  clearly  and 
from  a different  point  of  view,  the  probable  horticultural 
resources  of  the  State.  The  experienced  observer  forms 
a rapid  estimate  of  the  country  over  which  he  is  traveling 
by  noting  the  lay  of  the  land,  the  appearance  of  the  soil 
and  the  character  of  the  vegetation.  The  introductory 
chapters  of  this  manual  attempt  to  furnish  the  same  sort 
of  data. 

SAGEBRUSH. 

There  is  no  more  characteristic  plant  of  the  west 
than  'the  common  sagebrush  {Artemisia  tridentata).  Its 
presence  indicates  a dry  and  rather  hot  summer  climate, 
with  too  little  rainfall  to  mature  the  general  run  of  crops 
without  irrigation,  except  by  '‘dry  farming,’’  methods, 
which  have  in  recent  years  greatly  enlarged  the  possibili- 
ties of  this  class  of  lands,  and  almost  make  us  hesitate  to 
say  that  any  land  in  Idaho  is  incapable  of  raising  crops 
without  irrigation.  The  winter  climate  of  the  sagebrush 
region  is  in  parts  mild  and  in  others  rather  severe.  Large, 
uniform  sagebrush  unmixed  with  “rabbitbrush”  or  other 
shrubs  of  nearly  its  own  size,  is  universally  taken  as  an 
index  of  the  finest  kind  of  soil  for  an  arid  region.  Rab- 
bitbrush {Bigelovia,  lately  called  Chrysothamnus)  in 
slight  admixture  is  not  very  objectionable;  more  indicates 
a poorer  soil.  Greasewood  {Sarcobatus  vermiculatus) 
mixed  with  sagebrush  indicates  alkali  soil. 

The  sagebrush  area  of  Idaho  includes  pretty  much  the 
whole  of  the  south  part,  as  far  north  as  the  middle  of 
Washington  county,  with  an  area  approximating  half  the 
entire  state. 


36  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

In  this  region  there  are  a few  places  where  the  alti- 
tude rises  so  high  as  to  induce  more  rainfall,  and  here  the 
sage  thins  out  and  disappears.  Above  5,000  feet  there  is 
little  of  the  plant. 

The  only  tree  that  grows  in  typical  arid  sagebrush 
regions  is  the  juniper  {Juniperus  occidentalis) , which 
occurs  scatteringly  on  the  ridges  of  foothills  along  the 
southern  tier  of  counties,  and  rather  abundantly  south  of 
the  Owyhee  mountains  and  on  the  lava  plain  northwest  of 
American  Falls.  The  fine-grained,  fragrant  and  durable 
wood  is  used  for  fuel  and  fence-posts. 

FOREST. 

The  forest  area  of  the  state  extends  over  most  of  the 
northern  and  central  parts,  and  while  this  vast  region  is 
not  all  densely  forested,  it  is  largely  so  and  the  more  open 
spots  are  not  extensive.  The  principle  trees  are  mentioned 
below. 

Yellow  Pine  (Pinus  ponderosa) . — This  has  a wider 
range  than  any  other  single  species  of  tree  in  the  State, 
covering  nearly  all  the  timber  region. 

Professor  C.  V.  Piper,  in  his  Flora  of  Washington, 
recently  published  by  the  United  States  National  Museum, 
has  given  a concise  account  of  the  habits  of  this  tree. 
He  says:  “This  tree  exhibits  a marked  predilection  for 
soils  of  granitic  origin,  and  wherever  such  soil  is  found, 
even  if  completely  isolated,  the  yellow  pine  is  quite  sure 
to  occur.  * * It  is  apparent  that  this  tree  en- 

croaches on  the  clayey  basaltic  soils  with  difficulty. 
Whether  this  is  owing  to  the  inability  of  the  seedlings  to 
struggle  with  the  herbaceous  vegetation  or  to  a lack  of 
adaptation  to  the  soil  itself,  or  to  some  other  factor, 
remains  to  be  determined.  * * ♦ From  the  fact 

that  the  yellow  pine  establishes  itself  on  basaltic  clay 
under  favorable  conditions  of  moisture  and  temperature, 
as  in  the  Blue  Mountains,  or  of  the  shading  and  abun- 
dant seeding  that  the  surrounding  forests  provide  in 
western  Idaho,  it  is  evident  that  the  soil  factor  is  not  the 


Native  Vegetation  of  Idaho,  S7 

only  one  that  has  prevented  the  spread  of  the  pine  forest. 
Yellow  pine  forests,  where  pure,  are  open  in  character, 
and  marked  by  the  relatively  small  amount  of  forest 
litter.  * * He  (They)  are,  however,  seldom  pure, 

except  at  low  altitudes  in  rather  dry  soil.  In  the  moister 
situations  afforded  by  higher  altitudes,  shaded  slopes  or 
valleys,  the  yellow  pine  is  usually  mixed  with  red  fir  in 
varying  proportions.  Indeed,  as  the  moisture  becomes 
greater,  the  proportion  of  red  fir  increases  until  it  becomes 
the  predominating  tree."’ 

Professor  Sargent,  in  his  Silva  of  North  America,  pays 
the  following  deserved  tribute  to  this  magnificent  tree: 
"Tossessed  of  a constitution  which  enables  it  to  endure 
great  variations  of  climate  and  to  flourish  on  the  well- 
watered  slopes  of  the  California  mountains,  on  torrid  lava 
beds,  in  the  dry  interior  valleys  of  the  north  and  on  the 
sun-baked  mesas  of  the  south,  and  to  push  out  over  the 
plains  bodily  where  no  other  tree  can  exist,  the  advance 
guard  of  the  Pacific  forest,  Pinus  ponderosa  is  the  most 
widely  distributed  tree  of  western  North  America.  Ex- 
ceeded in  size  by  the  sugar  pine  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  it 
surpasses  all  its  race  in  the  majesty  of  its  port  and  the 
splendor  of  its  vitality;  and,  an  emblem  of  strength,  it 
appears  as  enduring  as  the  rocks,  above  which  it  raises 
its  noble  shafts  and  stately  columns.” 

It  remains  to  add  that  the  yellow  pine  does  not,  like  the 
eastern  pines,  flourish  best  on  sandy,  poor  soil,but  in  Idaho 
it  occupies  thousands  of  acres  of  land  eminently  fit  for 
agriculture  and  where  not  too  elevated,  for  horticulture 
also. 

Red  Fir  (Pseudotsuga  mucronata), — This  well  known 
tree  has  a range  but  little  narrower  than  the  preceding; 
as  already  indicated  it  is  limited  to  slightly  higher  alti- 
tudes and  moister  locations  than  the  yellow  pine  is  capa- 
ble of  occupying.  It  generally  occurs  on  steep,  rough 
land,  mountains  and  their  foot-hills. 

White  Pine  {Pinus  monticola), — Commencing  in  the 
northern  part  of  Idaho  County  and  ranging  across  Nez 
Perce  into  the  eastern  end  of  Latah  and  the  southern  part 
of  Shoshone;  occurring  again  in  the  northern  part  of 


38  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

Kootenai  about  Priest  Lake.  This  tree  occupies  a much 
smaller  range  than  either  of  the  preceding,  but  forms 
dense  tracts  of  now  mature  timber  of  high  quality;  it  is 
therefore  much  sought  by  lumbermen.  It  is  limited  in  its 
distribution  to  areas  of  much  moisture,  which  may  or  may 
not  be  too  rough  for  agriculture. 

There  are  several  other  important  forest  trees  in  the 
State,  which  need  not  be  mentioned  for  our  present  pur- 
pose. 


BUNCH-GRASS  PRAIRIE. 

This  heading  might  need  a little  explanation,  as  this 
land  has  been  under  cultivation  so  completely  and  so 
long  that  little  trace  of  bunch  grass  remains,  and  the  occu- 
pants would  not  know  their  own  farms  under  this  appella- 
tion. It  is  a region  along  the  western  side  of  the  state,  north 
of  the  middle,  of  small  area,  corresponding  very  nearly  with 
the  Columbia  River  Lava  of  our  geological  map.  It  is  the 
principal  non-irrigated  farming  area  of  the  state  at  the  pres- 
ent time  and  is  almost  wholly  under  plow.  It  is  really  the  up- 
per edge  of  a tract  that  lies  mostly  in  the  state  of  Washing- 
ton, and  extends  westward  in  gradually  lessening  altitude 
and  rainfall  toward  the  Columbia  river.  It  is  closely  bordered 
on  the  east  by  timber,  the  yellow  pine  being  generally 
the  contiguous  kind  of  tree. 

It  is  hard  to  define  the  limit  of  “forest’'  as  the  timber 
shades  off  gradually  toward  the  south.  A map  would  rep- 
resent some  of  the  lower  mountains  of  the  middle  and 
southern  counties  as  having  neither  sagebrush  nor  timber. 
While  this  is  substantially  correct  as  to  sagebrush,  it 
should  be  qualified  with  the  explanation  that  some  timber 
does  occur,  often  enough  to  be  of  great  importance  to 
the  adjacent  communities,  yet  not  enough  to  be  regarded 
as  a continuous  body. 


CHAPTER  V. 


IDAHO  IRRIGATION  METHODS. 

By  Don  H.  Bark. 

Irrigation  Engineer  in  Charge  of  U.  S.  Irrigation  Investi- 
gations in  Idaho, 

The  financial  success  of  the  irrigation  farmer  is  largely 
dependent  upon  his  knowledge  of  general  agriculture,  and 
the  adaptability  of  his  irrigation  methods. 

There  are  many  methods  used  in  the  state  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  Each  one  of  them  has  many  good  features  and  is 
best  adapted  to  certain  combinations  of  soil,  crop  and 
topography.  The  best  results,  however,  cannot  be  secured 
unless  the  proper  system  is  used,  and  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  many  of  our  Idaho  irrigators  could  greatly  increase 
their  profits  if  they  could  be  prevailed  upon  to  change  their 
methods  of  farming. 

There  are  two  common  methods  or  systems  of  irrigation 
in  use,  the  furrow  and  the  flooding  method.  The  type  of 
system  that  should  be  used  in  each  case  depends  upon  a 
variety  of  factors,  principal  among  which  are:  (1)  the 
class  of  crop;  (2)  character  of  soil;  (3)  topography  of  the 
land,  and  (4)  the  size  of  the  irrigation  head. 

The  furrow  method,  generally  speaking,  is  adapted  to 
all  rowed  crops,  such  as  potatoes,  corn  and  orchard,  and  to 
nearly  all  crops  when  planted  on  soils  of  medium  texture. 

The  flooding  method  is  adapted  to  grain  and  hay,  or 
pasture  grasses,  on  nearly  all  types  of  soil,  and  especially 
to  very  impervious  or  extremely  porous  soils. 

The  furrow  method  consists  essentially  of  running  the 
water  across  the  land  in  small  parallel  furrows,  an  equal 
distance  apart,  only  a comparatively  small  amount  of  water 
being  run  in  each  furrow.  These  furrows  or  corrugations 
are  made  with  an  instrument  somewhat  resembling  a sled, 
there  being  two  or  more  runners  or  shovels.  The  corruga- 


40  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

tor  is  drawn  by  two  horses.  About  five  acres  per  day  is 
the  average  amount  of  land  covered  by  man  and  team  with 
this  machine.  The  furrows  should  be  made  after  the  seed 
is  planted  and  before  it  has  sprouted.  It  is  usually  best  to 
make  them  run  in  the  direction  of  the  greatest  slope, 
unless  it  is  excessive,  in  which  case  they  must  be  run 
around  the  slope  on  a lesser  grade.  The  furrows  are  made 
from  three  to  six  inches  wide,  their  depth,  usually,  approxi- 
mately equalling  their  width.  The  character  of  the  soil 
determines  their  spacing.  They  should  be  spaced  such 
a distance  apart  that  the  water  will  sub  across  and 
meet  between  them  in  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours. 
In  medium  soils,  this  distance  is  usually  from  two  and 
one-half  feet  to  three  feet,  in  sandy  soil  from  three  to  five 
feet,  and  in  fine  grained  impervious  soil,  from  eighteen 
inches  to  two  feet. 

Where  soils  are  so  impervious  that  the  water  will  not 
sub  across  and  meet  between  furrows  eighteen  inches 
apart,  within  a reasonable  time,  a flooding  system  should 
be  installed. 

Very  porous  soils  should  always  be  flooded,  as  the 
corrugation  system  allows  too  much  loss  of  water  from 
deep  percolation.  The  corrugation  method,  as  a rule  is 
adapted  to  rougher  land  than  the  flooding  system,  as  the 
water  can  be  conducted  over  the  uneven  places  to  better 
advantage  with  the  furrows. 

There  are  many  methods  of  irrigation  by  flooding,  free 
or  wild  flooding  from  feed  ditches,  without  anything  to 
guide  the  water  across  the  field,  and  with  but  little  pre- 
liminary preparation  of  the  soil ; the  border  method,  where 
parallel  dykes  or  borders  fifty  to  one  hundred  feet  apart 
guide  the  water  as  it  floods  across  the  field;  and  the  check 
or  basin  method,  where  small  parts  of  the  field  are  leveled 
and  enclosed  by  dykes,  each  enclosure  being  flooded  separ- 
ately. The  greater  per  cent  of  irrigation  of  grain  and 
hay  in  Idaho  is  probably  now  done  by  the  free  flooding 
method.  This  is  a wasteful  method  at  the  best,  if  the 
value  of  time  and  irrigation  water  are  to  be  taken  into 
consideration,  and  in  addition,  less  crop  is  usually  produced 
than  with  other  more  careful  methods.  Where  this  method  is 


Manual  of  TTort  iculture,  Idaho. 


PLATE  V. 


WHITE  WINTER  PEARMAIN 


Idaho  Irrigation  Methods 


41 


used,  the  land  is  not  usually  leveled  to  any  extent,  the 
surface  is  wetted  by  flooding  haphazardly  from  ditches 
that  are  usually  built  along  each  ridge.  A given  crop  on  a 
given  soil,  during  a normal  season,  requires  a certain 
specific  amount  of  water,  in  order  to  make  a maximum 

production,  and  unless  all  parts  of  the  field  receive  this 

amount,  a maximum  crop  cannot  be  produced.  This  fact 
emphasizes  the  value  of  careful  preparation  of  the  surface 
for  irrigation,  and  makes  it  clear  that  the  best  results 

cannot  be  obtained  by  the  free  or  wild  flooding  method, 

for  even  application  of  water  cannot  be  made  to  rough, 
uneven  land. 

There  is  an  insignificant  amount  of  land  irrigated  by 
the  check  or  basin  method  of  irrigation  in  the  state  at 
this  time,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  or  not  its  use  should 
be  recommended. 

The  border  method  of  flooding,  however,  cannot  be  too 
highly  recommended  for  all  hay  and  pasture  grasses  in 
Idaho.  This  method  can  usually  be  installed  with  a reas- 
onable expenditure,  permits  the  use  of  large  heads  of 
water,  and  is  economical  of  both  time  and  water.  This 
type  of  system  is  installed  by  dividing  the  field  in  question 
into  parallel  strips  or  borders,  with  small  low  parallel 
dykes  from  thirty  to  one  hundred  feet  apart.  These  dykes 
should  usually  extend  down  the  greatest  slope,  unless  it  is 
excessive,  from  the  head  or  feed  ditch,  built  along  the 
ridges.  These  strips  should  be  leveled  crosswise,  so  that 
the  water  will  spread  evenly  betwen  the  dykes,  but  it  is 
not  necessary  to  make  a uniform  grade  between  them,  up 
and  down  the  slope.  No  more  grading  is  necessary, 
longitudinally,  than  will  permit  the  water  to  flow  uninter- 
ruptedly without  forming  pools.  The  length  of  these 
borders  between  cross  ditches  should  not  be  over  six 
hundred  feet,  as  it  is  a waste  of  both  time  and  water  to 
flood  the  water  farther  than  this.  The  dykes  separating 
the  borders  should  be  rather  broad  and  low,  so  that  a 
mower  or  wagon  can  pass  over  them  easily.  Where  the  land 
is  well  leveled  crosswise,  dykes  six  inches  high  in  the 
center  and  from  two  to  two  and  one-half  feet  wide  at  the 
base,  are  about  right.  These  dykes  should  be  put  in  before 


42  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

the  crop  is  planted,  and  the  same  amount  of  seed  should 
planted  on  them  as  is  planted  on  a similar  area  between. 
This  method  is  adapted  for  use  with  the  hay,  pasture,  and 
the  grains,  and  cannot  be  too  highly  recommended,  for  it 
is  believed  that  it  is  more  economical  of  time  and  water 
than  any  other  system  that  can  be  installed.  Potatoes, 
root  crops,  and  other  cultivated  crops,  including  orchards, 
are  necessarily  irrigated  by  furrows  between  the  rows. 
The  depth  of  the  furrows  and  their  distance  apart  natur- 
ally depends  upon  the  crop.  It  has  been  found  all  other 
things  being  equal,  that  the  deeper  these  furrows  are 
made  the  less  loss  there  will  be  from  evaporation.  The 
water,  with  the  furrow  system,  as  well  as  with  the  flooding 
system,  should  not  be  run  too  far  between  cross  ditches, 
and  it  is  believed  that  about  six  hundred  feet  is  the  great- 
est distance  that  should  be  used.  With  porous  soils,  a 
shorter  distance  than  this  would  be  advisable,  for  if  it  is 
run  too  far,  it  has  to  be  held  on  the  upper  end  next 
the  head  ditch  so  long  before  the  lower  end  is  irrigated, 
that  there  is  considerable  over-irrigation,  and  loss  by  deep 
percolation  next  the  head  ditch. 

Cultivation  has  been  found  to  reduce  the  evaporation 
losses  very  materially.  This  holds  true  with  all  cultivated 
crops,  and  especially  with  orchards.  From  a series  of  ex- 
periments carried  on  by  the  irrigation  investigation 
branch  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
which  are  described  in  detail  in  0.  E.  S.  Bulletin  No.  248, 
it  is  shown  on  page  27  that  a dry  three-inch  soil  mulch 
makes  a saving  of  57  per  cent  of  the  water  lost  from  an 
unmulched  surface,  and  that  deeper  muches  than  this 
make  a much  greater  saving.  The  same  bulletin  on  page 
60  shows  the  great  saving  of  water  that  is  made  by  the 
furrow  system  of  irrigation,  over  that  of  the  flooding 
system.  Where  the  flooding  system  lost  1.25  acre  inches 
during  28  days;  there  was  only  0.99  of  an  acre  inch  lost 
from  furrows  three  inches  deep,  0.86  of  an  acre  inch 
with  furrows  six  inches  deep,  and  0.72  of  an  acre  inch 
where  the  water  was  applied  in  furrows  nine  inches  deep. 

Orchards  should  be  cultivated  as  soon  after  irrigation 
as  the  surface  soil  is  dry  enough  to  work  properly.  The 


Idaho  Irrigation  Methods 


43 


len^h  of  time  after  irrigation  that  this  can  be  done  will 
depend  somewhat  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the 
weather  conditions.  With  sandy  soil,  cultivation  can 
usually  be  done  with  impunity  at  the  end  of  24  hours  after 
irrigation,  while  with  the  finer  grained  soils,  from  48  to 
60  hours  are  sometimes  required  to  elapse  before  the 
same  can  be  cultivated  to  advantage.  Orchards  are  many 
times  planted  on  raw  soils,  and  will  do  well  for  the  first  few 
years,  but  owing  to  the  inherent  nature  of  Idaho  soils,  some 
cover  crop  should  usually  be  planted  at  the  end  of  about 
the  fourth  or  fifth  year,  and  left  to  grow  for  two  or  three 
years. 

Nearly  every  type  of  soil  is  found  in  the  irrigated  sec- 
tions of  Idaho,  varying  from  the  finest  of  adobe  clays  to 
the  coarsest  of  gravels.  The  majority  of  the  soil,  however, 
would  be  classed  as  a medium  clay  loam,  finely  divided  and 
uniform  in  chemical  composition  and  texture,  to  a depth  of 
four  or  more  feet.  The  annual  precipitation  throughout 
the  majority  of  irrigated  Idaho  ranges  from  nine  to  sixteen 
inches,  of  which  from  three  to  six  inches  usually  occur 
during  the  six  months  of  the  growing  season,  from  April 
to  September  inclusive.  This  amount  of  precipitation  is 
not  conducive  to  a great  amount  of  native  or  natural  vege- 
tation, and  hence  the  soil  is  found  to  be  deficient  in  humus. 
This  necessitates  the  addition  of  manure  or  the  growing 
and  turning  under  of  alfalfa,  clover  or  some  other  legume, 
before  these  soils  will  produce  maximum  crops,  though  very 
good  yields  of  grain  and  potatoes  are  usually  produced  on 
raw  soils  for  the  first  two  to  four  years,  after  which  time 
it  is  found  advisable  to  plant  clover  or  alfalfa.  The  first 
crop  of  grain  or  potatoes,  after  the  land  has  been  in 
clover  or  alfalfa  for  three  years,  is  usually  double  that 
produced  on  similar  soils  that  have  never  grown  legumes 
or  been  manured.  Average  Idaho  soil  is  almost  univer- 
sally found  to  be  very  rich  in  all  of  the  necessary  mineral 
plant  foods,  but  nitrogen  must  be  added  sooner  or  later, 
if  maximum  production  is  to  be  secured.  This  can  be  done 
in  no  more  economical  manner  than  by  planting  a legume 
crop,  which  will  store  up  nitrogen  in  the  soil  while  produc- 
ing a very  valuable  crop  in  itself.  Alfalfa  sod  is  well 


44  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

adapted  to  the  growing  of  orchards,  but  this  crop  should 
rarely,  if  ever,  be  planted  in  a growing  orchard,  as  it  is 
extremely  hard  to  kill  out  after  the  trees  have  reached  a 
good  size.  The  dead  leaves  and  roots  are  also  a good 
harbor  for  pests,  and  should  not  be  left  there  permanently. 
The  clovers  and  the  vetches  are  to  be  recommended  as  cover 
crops  for  orchards.  These  produce  nearly  as  much  food 
value  as  the  alfalfa,  store  up  nitrates  just  as  rapidly,  and 
are  far  easier  to  kill  out. 

Vetches  have  been  grown  with  success  on  the  Gooding 
Experiment  Station.  Twelve  or  more  varieties  have  been 
tried  out  on  this  station,  and  three  of  them  have  been  very 
promising,  having  made  a very  rank  growth  each  year  for 
the  past  three  years.  These  varieties  are  Vicia  Villosa, 
Vicia  Dasycarpa  and  Vicia  Fulgens.  These  vetches  are 
annuals,  and  have  given  excellent  satisfaction  in  every 
respect.  Their  nodule  development  has  seemed  to  be 
greater  and  more  rapid  than  that  of  any  other  legume 
grown  on  the  station.  These  vetches  were  grown  at  Good- 
ing at  an  altitude  of  some  3,700  feet,  and  as  they  have  done 
especially  well  for  three  consecutive  years,  it  is  quite  cer- 
tain that  they  can  be  grown  with  success  anywhere  in 
south  Idaho  at  or  below  an  altitude  of  4,000  feet. 

From  the  results  of  a Duty  of  Water  investigation  cov- 
ering the  seasons  of  1910,  1911  and  1912,  in  which  hun- 
dreds of  different  fields  of  all  kinds  of  crops  were  included, 
it  seems  evident  that  1.5  acre  feet  per  acre  per  season  will 
be  sufficient  for  bearing  orchards  on  deep  soils  of  medium 
texture,  if  clean  cultivation  is  practiced  and  a thorough 
dust  mulch  is  maintained.  If  cover  crops  are  planted  in  the 
orchard,  a larger  amount  of  water  than  this  will  no  doubt 
be  found  necessary.  Alfalfa  has  been  found  to  require  2.5 
acre  feet  per  acre  per  season  on  the  better  class  of  soils  and  it 
seems  possible  that  an  aged  orchard  with  a rank  cover 
crop  will  require  at  least  three  acre  feet  per  acre  per 
season.  It  is  not  necessary,  however,  to  plant  cover  crop 
on  all  of  an  orchard  at  the  same  time,  and  if  rotation  is 
practiced,  planting  the  cover  crop  only  on  one-half  of  the 
orchard  at  a time,  the  other  half  being  clean  cultivated,  the 
results  of  the  investigation  strongly  indicate  that  two  acre 


Idaho  Irrigation  Methods 


45 


feet  per  acre  per  season  on  the  average  south  Idaho  soils 
of  four  or  more  feet  in  depth  will  be  found  sufficient. 

The  Duty  of  Water  has  been  found  to  depend  upon  a 
variety  of  factors,  principal  among  which  are,  (1)  the 
character  of  the  soil  and  subsoil;  (2)  climatic  conditions; 
(3)  fertility  of  the  soil,  (4)  diversification  of  the  crops; 
(5)  use  of  rotation;  (6)  preparation  of  the  land,  and  (7) 
kind  of  crop.  The  effect  of  these  factors  on  the  duty  is 
self-evident,  their  combined  influence  is  sufficient,  in  many 
cases,  to  double  and  quadruple  the  duty.  The  investigation 
has  emphasized  the  fact  throughout  that  careful  prepara- 
tion of  the  soil,  and  handling  of  the  crop  always  pay  big 
returns  on  the  investment  if  the  value  of  the  water  is  to  be 
taken  into  consideration.  There  is  no  question  but  that  a 
larger  amount  of  water  than  is  actually  necessary  is  being 
used  in  many  instances  throughout  the  state.  Water  is 
becoming  more  valuable  each  year,  so  much  so  that  there  is 
a strong  tendency  to  cut  the  allotted  amount  to  the  mini- 
mum, wherever  possible,  but  the  investigation  that  has 
been  carried  out  will  be  immensely  valuable  in  determining 
the  minimum  amount  that  will  give  satisfactory  results  in 
each  case.  The  statements  of  duty  that  have  been  made  above 
are  all  based  on  deep,  uniform  soil,  and  larger  amounts  will 
be  required  where  very  impervious  soils  or  porus  soils  are 
found. 

The  investigation,  as  a whole,  shows  that  two  acre 
feet  per  acre  is  the  proper  duty  for  diversified  crops  on 
the  best  class  of  Idaho  soils,  and  that  most  unusual  con- 
ditions must  obtain  before  one  will  be  warranted  in  open- 
up  a project  with  less  than  this  amount  of  water.  The 
largest  yields  have  been  made  in  many  cases  where  the 
largest  amounts  of  water  have  been  applied,  yet  the 
largest  yields  per  unit  of  water  have  invariably  been  made 
where  the  smaller  amounts  have  been  applied.  This  em- 
phasizes the  fact  that  the  value  of  the  land,  of  the  water 
and  of  the  crops  produced,  together  with  the  costs  of 
producing  the  same,  must  all  be  taken  into  consideration, 
as  well  as  the  amount  of  water  that  will  produce  the  larg- 
est yield,  when  determining  the  economic  duty  for  any 
project.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  broadly  speaking,  one 


46  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

would  be  justified  in  assuming  a higher  duty  of  water  in 
places  where  water  is  very  valuable  and  land  compara- 
tively cheap,  than  where  land  is  high  and  water  com- 
paratively inexpensive.  It  is  practically  as  easy,  and  fully 
as  serious,  however,  to  err  on  one  side  as  on  the  other  in 
this  matter,  and  serious  consideration  of  this  problem 
must  be  urged  at  all  times,  in  order  that  stable  develop- 
ment may  be  promoted  and  that  justice  may  be  done  to 
all  parties. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  IRRIGATION. 

BY  ELIAS  NELSON. 

Seventy-seven  per  cent  of  the  area  of  Idaho  lies  in  the 
arid  belt.  With  a few  exceptions  fruit  is  not  grown 
without  irrigation  outside  the  “Panhandle.”  The  irrigated 
area  of  the  state  is  nearly  1,500,000  acres,  of  which 
about  140,000  are  in  orchards.  This  is  about  two-thirds 
the  total  orchard  area. 

An  annual  rainfall  of  20  inches  is  generally  conceded 
as  sufficient  for  successful  fruit  culture  without  irrigation 
under  average  soil  conditions.  The  depth  and  retentive- 
ness of  the  soil  as  well  as  the  amount  of  rainfall  is  a 
factor  in  determining  the  need  of  irrigation.  Fifteen 
inches  of  rainfall  well  husbanded  by  thorough  cultivation 
has  been  found  sufficient  for  deep,  retentive  soils.  In 
certain  localities  there  is  a natural  underground  supply 
of  moisture  within  reach  of  the  roots.  In  such  places 
the  amount  of  the  rainfall  is  not  of  great  importance. 
There  are  many  successful  orchards  in  foothill  localities 
in  southern  Idaho,  where  these  conditions  obtain.  A per- 
fect state  of  cultivation,  however,  is  maintained  in  these 
orchards.  Another  instance  of  the  importance  of  soil 
conditions  in  determining  the  need  of  irrigation  is  found 
in  Nez  Perce  county.  Situated  between  the  high  grain- 
bearing table  lands  and  the  river  bottoms  are  bench  land, 
where  the  soil  is  two  to  four  feet  deep  and  quite  retentive 
of  moisture.  Here  a great  deal  of  fruit  is  grown  without 
irrigation.  On  certain  parts  of  the  bottoms,  however, 
the  soil  is  somewhat  porus  and  the  vineyards  and  orchards 
located  there  are  regularly  irrigated. 

To  supply  moisture  and  preserve  proper  tilth  is  by  no 
means  the  least  important  part  of  fruit  growing.  Serious 
injuries  have  been  experienced  in  the  past  by  the  excessive 
use  of  water.  That  many  growers  use  more  water  than  is 
necessary,  there  is  no  doubt.  More  frequent  cultivation 


48  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

and  less  irrigation  has  been  found  to  give  better  results. 
Those  who  have  learned  this  by  experience  no  longer  use 
as  large  amounts  of  water  as  formerly,  even  though  the 
water  may  be  abundant.  This  tendency  to  apply  less 
water  will  result  in  more  intelligent  orchard  management. 

Since  the  irrigator  constantly  has  to  deal  with  soil 
conditions,  an  appreciation  of  the  various  phenomena  of 
translocation  of  ground  water  is  very  important.  The 
movements  of  water  in  the  soil  are  due  to  gravity  and 
capillary  attraction.  Gravity  acts  chiefly  through  coarse 
sand  or  gravel  or  any  adventitious  interstices  in  the  soil. 
In  porus  soil  the  downward  movement  of  the  water  may 
be  very  rapid  and  the  losses  great.  More  frequent  irri- 
gations are  necessary  on  soil  of  this  character  as  a 
large  amount  may  seep  away  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
roots.  Capillarity  comes  into  play  where  the  soil  particles 
are  fine  and  lie  close  together.  It  acts  in  any  direction, 
upward,  downward  and  horizontally.  It  aids  gravity  in 
distributing  irrigation  water  through  the  soil  and  draws 
moisture  up  from  the  subsoil  to  the  surface.  During 
rains  and  when  water  is  applied  the  movement  is  down- 
ward. This,  however,  is  soon  reversed,  so  that  in  the 
intervals  between  irrigations  the  movement  is  upward. 
Where  the  soil  is  fine  and  deep  capillarity  may  draw  mois- 
ture from  a depth  of  6 feet  or  more.  It  is  checked 
wherever  the  spaces  between  the  soil  grains  are  filled 
with  air;  hence,  the  value  of  an  earth  mulch  as  a cover 
which  more  or  less  completely  prevents  the  escape  of 
moisture.  Hardpan  may  entirely  stop  percolation  and 
any  compact  layer  of  soil  may  greatly  retard  it. 

In  all  soils  there  is  a network  of  interstices  among  the 
soil  grains.  Ordinarily  these  spaces  contain  some  air,  but 
in  a saturated  soil  all  air  has  been  excluded.  Without  air 
the  roots  cannot  perform  their  functions.  More  water 
than  80  per  cent  of  the  water-holding  capacity  is  detrimen- 
tal. Forty  to  sixty  percent,  or  about  half  air  and  half 
water  in  the  spaces  in  the  soil  is  the  condition  best  suited 
to  plant  growth. 

The  fine  volcanic  soil  of  southern  Idaho,  for  instance, 
has  a water-holding  capacity  equal  to  25  per  cent  of  its 


Manual  of  Horticulture,  Idaho. 


PLATfl  VF. 


WINRSAP 


Principles  and  Methods  of  Irrigation  49 

weight,  while  the  open  spaces  comprise  44  per  cent  of 
its  volume.  In  this  soil  the  percentage  of  moisture 
remains  quite  constant  under  irrigation.  Sixty  per  cent 
of  the  total  capacity  or  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  weight  is 
the  prevailing  amount  in  the  subsoil.  It  is  only  for  a few 
days  after  irrigation  that  more  than  this  is  found,  and 
only  when  the  supply  in  the  subsoil  has  been  too  heavily 
drawn  upon  that  there  is  less. 

A deep,  retentive  soil  is  a great  advantage.  Such  a 
soil  becomes  a vast  storage  reservoir  which  is  never 
quickly  exhausted.  With  proper  cultivation  the  loss  of 
moisture  may  be  reduced  to  a minimum  and  a high  duty 
.of  water  thus  attained.  Water  need  not  be  applied  as 
frequently  as  on  shallow  soils  where  the  storage  capacity 
is  limited.  Coarse,  leachy  soils  also  require  frequent 
irrigations  since  much  water  is  lost  by  percolation. 

The  use  of  more  water  than  is  required  for  best  results 
is  not  only  a waste  of  a valuable  commodity,  but  is 
responsible  for  certain  injurious  effects.  When  a state 
of  saturation  is  reached  air  is  excluded,  resulting  in  a 
temporary  checking  of  growth  and  interference  with 
proper  assimilation.  If  these  conditions  are  prolonged, 
serious  injury  may  result.  Many  orchards  have  been 
ruined  by  the  accumulation  of  alkali,  brought  by  seepage 
waters  from  higher  lands.  When  such  injuries  appear  in 
orchards,  there  is  no  remedy  other  than  artificial  drain- 
age. Where  the  soil  is  shallow  and  underlaid  with  an 
impervious  formation,  economy  in  the  use  of  water  and 
thorough  cultivation  will  generally  lessen  the  evils  of 
defective  drainage. 

In  some  soils  saturation  of  the  surface  causes  a com- 
pacting and  cementing  together  of  the  soil  particles,  and 
the  proper  tilth  is  not  easily  restored.  Moisture  at  the 
surface  serves  no  beneficial  purpose,  and  is  a waste  since 
the  water  absorbed  is  almost  entirely  lost  by  evaporation. 

What  the  irrigator  should  try  to  accomplish  is  to  convey 
the  water  to  the  roots  and  replenish  the  supply  in  the 
subsoil  and  in  so  doing  not  saturate  the  surface.  We 
cannot  precisely  attain  this  in  practice.  However,  by  the 
use  of  furrows  moderately  deep  it  is  possible  to  handle 


50  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

irrigation  water  in  such  a manner  as  not  to  wet  or  com- 
pact the  surface  to  a great  extent.  Such  a management 
tends  to  induce  deep  rooting,  which  is  desirable. 

The  furrow  system  modified  to  suit  the  requirement  of 
the  orchard  is  without  doubt  the  best  method  to  use  in 
Idaho.  The  number  of  furrows  between  the  rows  must  be 
varied  to  suit  the  age  of  the  orchard  and  the  character  of 
the  soil.  Certain  soils  require  five  while  in  some  soils 
two  may  irrigate  thoroughly  between  rows.  A sufficient 
number  should  be  made  so  that  water  is  distributed 
throughout  the  soil.  The  roots  will  then  spread  evenly. 
Some  growers  irrigate  young  orchards  with  a furrow  on 
one  side  of  the  row.  This  is  not  enough  nor  are  two 
furrows  for  each  row  always  sufficient.  After  the  first 
irrigation  at  the  time  of  planting  there  should  always  be 
at  least  two  furrows  and  additional  ones  should  be  added 
from  year  to  year  as  the  roots  spread.  It  is  important  to 
supply  all  the  roots  with  moisture  and  always  to  keep  a 
furrow  in  advance  of  them  as  they  push  out  into  the  space 
intervening  between  the  rows. 

Bush  fruits  will  require  one  or  two  furrows  between 
rows.  Strawberries  should  have  one  furrow  for  every 
two  rows,  and  in  irrigating  them,  water  should  preferably 
be  started  late  in  the  afternoon,  for  the  soil  and  water 
are  warm  at  that  time  of  day.  The  irrigation  may  be 
continued  during  the  forenight  if  necessary. 

To  install  the  furrow  system  the  procedure  is  as  fol- 
lows: When  the  conformation  of  the  land  permits  it,  the 
head  ditches  are  located  300  to  500  feet  apart  and  at  right 
angles  to  the  furrows.  When  they  must  be  made  on  con- 
tours, they  should  have  a grade  of  1%  to  21/2  inches  to 
each  100  feet  and  their  distance  apart  be  such  that  the 
furrows  are  300  to  500  feet  long.  Check  boxes  are  placed 
in  the  head  ditches  at  such  distances  apart  that  the  splash 
board  will  raise  the  water  high  enough  to  flow  readily 
into  all  the  furrows.  The  splash  boards  are  so  adjusted 
that  the  excess  water  in  each  section  flows  into  the  next 
below  until  the  whole  head  of  water  is  being  distributed. 
Each  head  ditch  below  the  highest  one  catches  the  water 
from  the  furrows  above  it  and  redistributes  it.  To  divert 


Principles  and  Methods  of  Irrigation  51 

the  water  from  the  head  ditches  small  gates  or  lath  tubes 
are  placed  in  the  ditch  bank.  Spouts  11/2  to  2 feet  long 
made  of  lath  will  usually  supply  sufficient  water  for  each 
furrow.  However,  when  a larger  stream  than  the  lath 
spouts  divert  is  needed,  tubes  may  be  made  of  half-inch 
lumber  of  the  proper  width.  The  spouts  are  placed  in  the 
ditch  bank  just  below  the  surface  of  the  water.  When  the 
splash  boards  are  in  place  the  water  will  flow  through  the 
spouts  and  when  any  section  of  the  orchard  has  received 
sufficient  water  the  boards  are  removed  and  the  water  then 
drops  below  the  level  of  the  spouts.  In  porus  soil  the 
furrows  should  be  300  to  400  feet  long.  In  soil  that  does 
not  absorb  water  readily  they  may  be  much  longer  and  a 
smaller  stream  of  water  should  be  run  for  a longer  time. 
The  automatic  feature  of  the  system  and  the  even  distribu- 
tion of  the  water  which  it  insures,  make  it  very  advan- 
tageous. Flooding  should  never  be  practiced  in  orchards, 
nor  should  water  ever  be  allowed  to  come  in  contact 
with  the  trunks  of  the  trees. 

The  irrigating  season  in  Idaho  is  from  May  to  August. 
After  the  first  of  September  irrigation  should  cease  in 
young  orchards  in  order  that  the  wood  may  have  ample 
time  to  mature.  If  water  is  not  withheld  at  that  time 
growth  may  be  prolonged  in  favorable  weather  and  killing 
back  may  result  should  a severe  freeze  occur.  The  orchard 
should  not  go  into  winter  with  a dry  soil,  and  unless  tol- 
erably moist,  water  must  be  applied  in  the  fall  after  all 
growth  has  ceased. 

In  a deep,  retentive  soil  two  to  four  irrigations  a season 
may  be  ample,  while  in  shallow  soil  six  applications  are  not 
uncommon.  The  frequency  of  application  and  the  amount 
are  determined  by  soil  conditions,  rainfall  and  mean  sum- 
mer temperature.  A close  study  of  these  factors  by  the 
grower  is  essential  in  judging  the  need  of  irrigation. 

Irrigation  and  cultivation  go  hand  in  hand,  and  being 
so  closely  related  a discussion  of  the  former  would  not  be 
complete  without  some  notice  of  the  latter.  Irrigation 
cannot  take  the  place  of  cultivation,  for  it  is  beneficial  in 
other  ways  than  conserving  moisture,  such  as  opening  and 
aerating  the  soil.  The  chief  benefit  of  cultivation  and  the 


\v,u^o\s  UB 


52  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

one  uppermost  in  our  minds  is  that  of  conservation  of 
soil  moisture.  It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  a 
dry,  loose  soil  is  impermeable  to  moisture.  Hence  by 
keeping  the  surface  well  pulverized  the  connection  between 
the  moist  soil  and  the  air  is  broken  and  the  loss  by  evap- 
oration prevented.  Experience  has  shown  that  this  surface 
mulch  needs  to  be  stirred  frequently  even  though  not  com- 
pacted by  rain. 

Cultivation  also  serves  to  make  the  soil  receptive  to 
moisture.  When  rain  occurs  there  is  little  or  no  run-off 
in  well  prepared  soil  and  surface  saturation  is  lessened. 
As  often  as  tilth  is  destroyed  by  showers  or  irrigation  it 
must  be  restored.  Local  conditions  must  indicate  the 
depth  and  time  of  cultivation.  In  general  there  should 
be  more  frequent  cultivation  now  than  is  practiced.  Some 
cultivate  but  once  after  each  irrigation.  This  is  not 
enough.  The  interval  between  each  cultivation  should 
not  be  more  than  two  weeks  and  8 to  15  per  season  should 
be  sufficient  under  average  conditions. 

Growers  who  practice  clean  cultivation  plow  once  in 
spring.  This  is  for  the  purpose  of  opening  the  soil.  By 
cutting  the  roots  that  venture  too  near  the  surface,  it 
establishes  deep  rooting.  Cultivation  alone  without  any 
plowing  is  not  a good  practice.  In  heavy  soils  there  is  a 
tendency  toward  a compact  layer  just  below  the  depth  to 
which  the  soil  is  worked.  The  use  of  shallow  irrigation 
furrows  often  aggravates  this  condition.  Such  a compact 
layer  very  materially  retards  the  percolation  of  water. 
The  spring  plowing  is  the  remedy  for  this  condition,  mak- 
ing subsequent  irrigation  easier. 

The  growing  of  annual  crops  between  the  rows  for 
four  or  five  years  after  the  trees  are  set  out  is  allowable. 
No  crop,  however,  which  does  not  admit  of  cultivation, 
should  be  grown  in  the  young  orchard.  After  it  has 
reached  the  bearing  age  intercropping  should  have  in 
view  the  improvement  of  the  soil.  The  extra  water  re- 
quired and  the  drain  upon  fertility  must  be  carefully 
considered.  In  a few  rare  cases  the  soil  may  be  so  deep, 
retentive  and  fertile,  and  water  so  abundant  that  inter- 
cropping may  be  practiced  with  comparative  impunity. 


Principles  and  Methods  of  Irrigation  6S 

Even  though  Idaho  soils  are  very  fertile,  the  growing  of 
any  crop  for  itself  in  bearing  orchards  should  be  dis- 
couraged. 

Some  growers  use  permanent  and  others  occasional 
cover  crops.  The  benefits  derived  from  these  crops  are 
the  improvement  of  the  condition  of  the  soil  by  the 
addition  of  humus,  protection  against  high  soil  temper- 
atures in  summer,  addition  of  nitrogen  and  winter  pro- 
tection for  the  soil.  Heavy  soils  are  greatly  benefited  by 
plowing  under  cover  crops  as  the  organic  matter  added 
makes  the  soil  more  friable  and  more  retentive  of  mois- 
ture. The  use  of  cover  crops  to  protect  the  soil  during 
the  hot  summer  weather  seems  to  have  much  weight  with 
some  growers,  and  these  keep  the  orchard  permanently  in 
red  clover  or  alfalfa.  They  disc  in  spring  and  follow  with 
a smoothing  harrow.  The  first  crop  is  cut  for  hay  while 
the  second  is  allowed  to  remain  as  a cover  during  the 
winter.  Another  practice  in  much  favor  is  that  of  alter- 
nating a cover  crop  of  red  clover  kept  for  two  or  three 
3^ars,  with  clean  cultivation  for  a like  period.  The  idea 
of  soil  improvement  is  uppermost  in  the  minds  of  those 
who  advocate  this  system. 

A cover  crop  does  not  conserve  moisture  but  on  the 
other  hand  robs  the  soil  of  it.  Hence,  sufficient  water 
must  be  applied  both  for  the  cover  crop  and  the  trees. 
Their  use  is  therefore  restricted  to  those  localities  where 
water  is  fairly  abundant. 

Green  crops  plowed  under  return  to  the  soil  those 
elements  of  fertility  which  they  take  from  it,  adding 
organic  matter  and  also  nitrogen  if  the  crop  be  a legume. 
This  is  a decided  benefit.  When,  however,  a crop  is 
removed,  there  is  a loss  which  cannot  be  restored  by 
green  manuring.  Idaho  soils  in  their  virgin  state  lack 
both  nitrogen  and  humus.  There  is  thus  an  obvious  need 
of  a cover  crop  to  put  the  soil  in  good  condition  for 
fruit  production. 


i 

} 


I 

1 


CHAPTER  VII. 


FRUIT  FOR  HOME  USE. 

T.  A.  ALLEN,  MERIDIAN,  IDAHO 

This  is  a subject  of  vital  importance  and  one  which 
has  been  sadly  neglected  in  many  localities.  Every  farmer 
should  plant  and  take  care  of  a home  fruit  garden,  and 
no  farm  is  complete  without  it.  The  fruit  garden  should 
consist  of  a choice  lot  of  fruit  bearing  trees  and  shrubs, 
maintained  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  fresh  and  luscious 
fruits.  In  its  general  purpose,  then,  the  fruit  garden  is 
intended  to  accomplish  results  similar  to  those  of  the 
vegetable  garden.  In  distinction  from  an  orchard,  the 
fruit  garden  is  more  restricted  in  area,  it  is  intended  for 
home  rather  than  for  market  purposes,  and  consequently 
should  comprise  a much  greater  variety  of  fruits. 

With  the  present  growth  of  the  commercial  fruit  in- 
terests of  the  United  States  the  home  fruit  garden  is  not 
receiving  the  special  attention  it  justly  deserves. 

Only  a few  years  ago  the  owners  of  home  fruit  gardens 
not  only  led  in  the  production  of  fruits,  but  were  our 
authorities  as  to  how  and  where  to  grow  them.  Today 
these  gardens,  while  no  less  numerous  or  important,  are 
overshadowed  by  the  orchards  where  fruit  is  grown  for 
commercial  purposes. 

While  both  the  home  garden  and  the  orchard  are  essen- 
tial to  the  good  of  the  community,  they  bear  very  different 
relations,  to  the  fruit  interests  of  the  country  as  a whole. 

The  home  garden  is  always  the  forerunner  of  commer- 
cial development,  and  even  in  those  localities  where  climatic 
and  soil  conditions  are  adverse  to  conducting  such  indus- 
tries on  an  extensive  scale  the  home  fruit  garden  of  the 
enthusiastic  amateur  is  certain  to  be  found.  All  the  suc- 
cess attained  today  by  the  fruit  interests  of  the  United 
States  has  grovm  out  of  the  persevering  efforts  of  a few 


56  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

men  whose  home  fruit  gardens  served  not  only  as  testing 
stations  for  determining  the  fitness  of  given  sorts  for  new 
and  untried  localities  but  they  were  the  propagating 
grounds  from  which  sorts  of  the  highest  quality  and 
greatest  commercial  value  originated. 

The  testing  of  varieties  in  new  localities  and  the 
development  and  dissemination  of  new  sorts  by  the  ama- 
teur is  an  important  work,  but  the  greatest  good  accom- 
plished by  him  is  to  be  found  in  the  wholesome  infiuence 
which  he  exerts  on  the  community  in  which  he  lives. 

A community  is  certain  to  profit  aesthetically  as  well  as 
financially  from  the  infiuence  of  such  growers,  and  it  is 
to  them  that  we  owe  our  appreciation  for  high  quality.  A 
discriminating  taste  developed  in  a neighborhood  creates 
a demand  which  it  pays  to  gratify  and  the  amateur  who 
grows  fruits  for  quality  will  find  a ready  market  in  such 
a section. 

The  inhabitants  of  this  country  are  notably  a fruit- 
loving  and  fruit-eating  people.  Notwithstanding  this,  how- 
ever, fruit  culture  has  grown  to  be  classed  among  the 
specialties,  and  few  persons  who  consume  fruit  are  actual 
growers. 

The  possibilities  in  fruit  culture  upon  restricted  areas 
have  been  very  generally  overlooked,  with  the  result  that 
many  persons  who  own  a city  lot,  a suburban  home,  or 
even  a farm,  now  look  upon  fruit  as  a luxury. 

This  can  all  be  changed  and  much  of  the  land  which  is 
now  practically  waste  and  entirely  un remunerative  can  be 
made  to  produce  fruits  in  sufficient  quantity  to  give  them 
a regular  place  upon  the  family  bill  of  fare  and  at  the 
same  time  add  greatly  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  table 
and  healthfulness  of  the  diet.  The  home  production  of 
fruit  stimulates  an  interest  in  and  a love  for  natural 
objects  which  can  only  be  acquired  by  that  familiarity 
with  them  which  comes  through  their  culture.  The  cul- 
tivation of  fruits  teaches  discrimination.  A grower  is  a 
much  more  intelligent  buyer  than  one  who  has  not  had  the 
advantages  of  tasting  the  better  dessert  sorts  as  they  come 
from  the  tree. 

If  every  purchaser  was  a good  judge  of  the  different 


Fruit  for  Home  Use 


67 


kinds  of  fruits,  the  demand  for  fruits  of  high  quality,  to 
produce  which  is  the  ambition  of  every  amateur,  as  well 
as  every  professional  fruit  grower,  would  become  a reality. 
But  until  some  means  of  teaching  the  differences  in  the 
quality  of  fruits  can  be  devised  the  general  public  will 
continue  to  buy  according  to  the  eye  rather  than  the 
palate. 

The  encouragement  of  the  cultivation  of  fine  fruits  in 
the  home  garden  will  do  much  towards  teaching  buyers 
this  discrimination.  Besides  increasing  the  fruit  supply 
and  cultivating  a taste  for  quality,  the  maintenance  of  a 
fruit  garden  brings  pleasant  and  healthful  employment, 
and  instead  of  proving  a hardship,  will  become  a great 
source  of  pleasure. 

The  possession  of  a tree  which  one  himself  has  planted 
and  reared  to  fruit  production  carries  an  added  interest 
in  its  product,  as  well  as  in  the  operation  by  which  it  was 
secured.  The  unfolding  of  the  leaf,  the  exposure  of  the 
blossom  buds,  the  development  of  the  flowers,  and  the  for- 
mation of  the  fruit  are  all  processes  which  measure  the 
skill  of  the  cultivator,  and  when  the  crowning  result  of 
all  these  natural  functions  has  been  attained  in  a crop  of 
perfect  fruit,  the  man  under  whose  care  these  results  have 
been  achieved  will  himself  have  been  made  happier  and 
better. 

Most  persons  engaging  in  the  cultivation  of  a home 
fruit  garden  will  have  as  their  chief  aim  the  production 
of  fruit  for  the  family  table  and  the  pleasure  it  affords; 
others  will  go  a step  farther  and  find  an  added  source  of 
pleasure  in  the  problems  of  budding,  grafting,  cross-pol- 
lination and  the  production  of  new  forms. 

In  order  to  prove  a source  of  constant  pleasure  and 
gratification  a fruit  plantation  must  claim  the  attention  of 
its  grower  from  early  spring  to  late  autumn;  its  products, 
portion  of  the  seasons  between  frosts.  The  problem  pre- 
sented involves  a succession  of  fruits  from  earliest  to 
latest,  as  well  as  a combination  of  different  species  of 
fruits. 

The  intensive  culture  and  liberal  feeding  to  be  given 


58 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


demand  that  all  plants  be  of  type  which  bear  early  and 
heavily  in  proportion  to  their  size. 

As  a general  rule  the  following  list  of  varieties  do  fairly 
well  in  Idaho.  Summer  apples — Early  Harvest,  White 
Transparent,  Duchess,  Red  Astrichan  and  Red  June;  Fall 
Apples — Maiden  Blush,  Wealthy,  Tolman  Sweet,  Fameuse 
too,  must  be  so  planned  as  to  cover  the  greatest  possible 
and  Jonathan;  Winter  Apples — ^White  Winter  Pearmain, 
Rome  Beauty,  Grimes  Golden,  R.  I.  Greening,  Delicious, 
Winesap  and  Belleflower;  Crab  Apples — Transcendent, 
Yellow  Siberian  and  Hy slop ; Prunes,  Golden  Silver,  Italian, 
French,  Pacific,  Hungarian  and  German.  Pears — Bartlett, 
Flemish  Beauty,  Duchess,  Sugar,  Keiffer,  Seckel  and  Win- 
ter Nelis.  Peaches — Muir,  Elberta,  Early  Crawford,  Late 
Crawford,  Lemon  Cling  and  Alexander.  Plums — Green 
Gage,  Weaver,  Wild  Goose,  Egg  and  Burbank.  Grapes — 
Niagara,  Concord,  Worden,  Moore’s  Early  and  Brighton. 
Raspberries — Gregg,  Cuthbert,  and  Everbearing.  Straw- 
berries— Glen  Mary,  Wilson,  Brandywine,  Senator  Dunlap, 
Wm.  Belt,  Jumbo,  Gandy  and  Jessie.  Cherries — Early 
Richmond,  Montmorency,  Black  Tartarian,  Royal  Ann, 
Bing,  Early  Duke,  Late  Duke.  Quinces — Prolific  and 
Champion.  Apricots — Montezumet.  Nectarines — Boston. 
Blackberries — Taylor  and  Agawam.  Currants  — Cherry, 
Victoria,  White  Grape  and  Black  Champion.  Gooseberries 
— Columbus  and  Downing. 

This  collection  will  give  you  fresh  fruit  every  day  in  the 
year  if  properly  cared  for.  Strive  to  obtain  quality  rather 
than  quantity. 

The  laboring  man  is  entitled  to  the  best  there  is  pro- 
duced. Why  not  see  that  you  have  it? 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


FRUIT  BY-PRODUCTS. 

C.  J.  SINSEL,  BOISE,  IDAHO. 

The  producing  of  fruit  has  claimed  the  attention  of 
some  of  our  finest  intellects — and  now  we  must  ask  these 
same  men  to  help  in  marketing  our  products.  This  sub- 
ject has  been  one  for  discussion  for  years  but  we  are  now 
at  the  place  where  we  must  put  our  researches  into 
practice. 

I have  given  the  by-product  end  of  the  industry  some 
thought  and  the  past  two  years  have  visited  several  suc- 
cessfully operated  plants,  and  secured  data  from  the  dif- 
ferent managers,  and  will  endeavor  here  to  give  this  in- 
formation for  those  interested. 

First  let  us  understand  that  all  fruits  grown  are  grad- 
ed for  commercial  purposes  into  three  grades,  viz.:  Extra 
Fancy,  Fancy  and  Choice,  these  being  the  commercial  terms 
used  to  designate  quality,  and  many  a packer  has  made  the 
mistake  of  not  grading  close  enough;  that  is,  he  would  get 
culls  in  his  Choice,  Choice  in  the  Fancy,  and  Fancy  in  his 
Extras,  all  because  he  has  no  other  way  of  disposing  of 
his  crop  except  selling  it  in  its  raw  state.  Now  let  us 
see  what  others  are  doing  and  estimate  our  losses,  or  what 
we  can  save  by  adopting  modern  methods.  Let  us  first 
take  the  apple,  the  King  of  Fruits,  and  grade  it  into 
four  grades,  viz.:  Culls,  Choice,  Fancy  and  Extras.  Let 
us  pack  the  Extra  and  the  Fancy  for  the  markets,  and  be 
sure  that  they  are  strictly  up  to  grade — ^now  by  keeping 
choice  and  the  culls  at  home  we  have  cut  down  the  quantity 
and  increased  quality  of  our  fruit  shipments  and  naturally 
increased  the  market  price. 

Now  what  to  do  with  the  choice  and  culls  that  we  have 
on  hand  is  the  object  of  this  article.  First  let  us  under- 
stand that  all  the  equipment  necessary  to  handle  50,000 


60  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

bushels  of  apples  in  one  season  will  cost  about  $2,000,  and 
can  be  installed  in  connection  with  your  packing  house. 

Fifty  pounds  of  bruised  wind-falls  or  decay  spotted  ap- 
ples will  make  three  gallons  of  finished  vinegar,  and  will 
cost  for  labor,  barrels,  handling,  selling,  20  cents  for 
the  three  gallons,  and  will  sell  for  at  least  20  cents  per 
gallon,  which  leaves  a profit  of  40  cents  per  bushel  for  the 
fruit  that  is  now  wasted,  or  worse,  left  in  the  orchard  for 
the  propagation  of  fruit  pests. 

Next  let  us  take  50  pounds  of  the  off-color,  off-size, 
ill-shaped,  and  make  them  into  cider;  it  will  make  you 
four  gallons  of  cider  at  a cost  of  20  cents  for  the  four 
gallons,  all  expenses  included,  and  selling  at  20  cents 
per  gallon  gives  you  60  cents  per  bushel  for  your  better 
culls,  which  should  never  be  sold  only  in  the  manufactured 
state. 

We  now  have  the  choice  which  are  off  in  color,  skin 
punctures,  stings,  too  large  or  too  small  but  firm,  which 
we  can  make  into  apple  butter  and  jelly.  Fifty  pounds  of 
apples  will  make  1%  gallons  of  finished  apple  butter  and 
will  cost  for  labor,  sugar,  fuel,  kegs,  or  buckets,  all  com- 
plete, 60  cents  per  gallon,  and  sell  readily  at  $1.00  per 
gallon,  or  net  50  cents  per  box  for  the  apples. 

From  this  grade  jelly  can  be  made  at  the  following 
cost:  Fifty  pounds  of  apples  will  make  twenty-four  pints 
of  jelly,  and  will  cost  for  the  glasses,  sugar,  fuel,  labor, 
labels,  selling,  all  complete,  $1.40  for  the  two  dozen  pints 
and  sell  readily  at  10  cents  per  glass  or  $2.40  for  the  50 
pounds  of  apples,  less  the  cost  of  production,  leaves  us 
$1.00  per  box  for  these  apples,  and  when  you  consider  that 
all  of  these  by-products  can  be  made  by  yourself  in  the 
fall  and  winter  when  you  are  not  busy  it  will  give  a better 
profit  than  I have  estimated,  as  I have  taken  my  figures 
from  plants  where  everyone  received  good  wages  and  not 
personally  interested  in  the  financial  results.  When  we 
know  that  the  complete  equipment  for  a plant  capable  of 
handling  50,000  bushels  of  apples  in  a winter  season  can 
be  installed  for  $2,000,  why  should  not  every  community 
have  by-product  plants  enough  to  care  for  their  fruits? 

What  would  this  have  meant  to  the  growers  in  southern 


Fruit  By-FroducU 


61 


Idaho  and  Utah  the  past  (1912)  season?  There  were  ap- 
proximately 1,400,000  boxes  of  apples  grown  and  at  least 
one-third  of  these  should  have  been  made  into  by-products, 
that  would  have  netted  the  growers  at  least  $250,000  and 
no  chances  taken,  and  at  the  same  time  reduced  the  quan- 
tity and  increased  the  quality  of  the  fruit  shipped,  thus 
assuring  us  of  better  returns  on  what  we  would  have 
shipped. 

In  addition  to  these  products,  in  many  of  the  peach  and 
cherry  growing  districts,  canneries  have  been  built  and 
operated  very  satisfactorily  to  the  owners  of  the  orchards, 
and  in  the  prune  districts  evaporators  care  for  the  sur- 
plus and  culls  as  well,  being  used  in  many  places  to  cure 
apples,  peaches  and  pears  in  addition  to  the  prunes. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


BY-PRODUCTS. 

BY  FREMONT  WOOD. 

President  State  Horticultural  Society. 

For  years  I have  been  urging  the  utilization  of  the 
poorer  grades  of  fruit  for  by-products.  By  by-products  I 
mean  the  enlarged  use  of  the  term  so  as  to  include  evapor- 
ation, canning,  evaporation  of  the  juices,  making  jellies 
and  jams,  making  of  ciders,  dry  and  sterilized,  cider  vine- 
gar, etc. 

Our  long  distance  from  the  markets  of  the  country  ex- 
cludes the  possibility  of  marketing  second  grade  fruits  in 
competition  with  fruits  grown  near  the  point  of  con- 
sumption. The  most  that  we  can  expect  in  the  near  future 
is  a profitable  market  for  our  specialties.  By  specialties  I 
mean  our  fancy  and  extra  fancy  grades  of  apples  and  pears 
and  the  highest  grade  of  the  smaller  fruits.  This  of 
necessity  will  mean  a large  surplus  either  for  waste  or 
utilization  by  the  method  above  suggested.  The  apple  is 
a wonderful  food  product,  and  everything  that  will  not 
stand  shipment  should  be  utilized  by  some  of  these 
methods.  Co-operative  marketing  must  be  adopted  for  the 
successful  handling  of  our  best  fruits,  and  the  same  meth- 
ods must  be  used  for  the  conversion  of  our  poorer  class 
into  by-products  and  the  handling  and  the  marketing  of 
the  same. 

The  fruit  growers  of  Idaho  and  the  northwest  must 
understand  that  the  future  success  of  the  fruit  industry 
depends  first  upon  the  production  of  the  highest  per  cent 
possible  of  fancy  grade  fruit  and  the  utilization  of  every- 
thing else  through  the  by-product  plant. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  transportation  lines 
prefer  handling  the  green  fruit  and  for  that  reason  discour- 
age plants  for  evaporation  and  other  methods  of  concen- 


64  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

trating  the  product.  The  growers  need  not  fear  this 
situation  because  the  transportation  lines  will  be  the  first 
to  realize  the  necessity  for  the  utilization  by  the  grower 
of  his  crops  upon  lines  that  will  continue  the  business 
rather  than  throttle  it. 

A campaign  of  advertising  our  green  fruits  has  already 
been  undertaken,  and  high  grade  specialties  can  be  manu- 
factured through  all  the  methods  above  enumerated.  I 
would  not  recommend  the  growing  of  the  fruit  with  a 
view  of  manufacturing  it  into  by-products,  but  rather  for 
the  purpose  of  producing  the  highest  per  cent  of  perfect 
fruit.  Wherever  the  utmost  care  is  used,  there  will  always 
be  a considerable  per  cent  for  the  evaporators,  the  canning 
plant  and  the  cider  press. 

The  apples  of  our  northwestern  states  are  very  rich  in 
sugar  content  and  with  the  increasing  cost  of  meats  and 
dairy  products  the  high  grade  jellies  and  other  products 
should  be  placed  upon  the  market  at  such  a price  as  to 
involve  very  extensive  consumption  and  at  the  same  time 
be  a remunerative  business  to  the  apple  grower.  Again  it 
would  pay  the  grower  in  the  end  to  give  away  his  poorer 
grade  of  fruits  rather  than  place  it  upon  the  market.  The 
placing  of  low  grade  fruit  upon  the  market  has  such  a ten- 
dency to  reduce  the  price  of  his  high  grade  fruit  that  he 
is  bound  to  lose  money  by  the  undertaking. 

My  recommendation  for  the  future  is  to  prune  severely, 
thin  thoroughly  and  raise  the  highest  grade  fruit  possible; 
market  only  the  fancy  grades  as  specialties  and  dispose  of 
the  balance  either  through  his  own  or  a community  by- 
product plant.  Manufacture  nothing  in  the  by-product 
plant  except  a product  of  the  highest  quality,  and  when 
this  is  accomplished  the  fruit  business  of  the  northwest 
will  be  placed  upon  a substantial  basis. 


Manual  of  Horticulture,  Idaho. 


PI. ATE  VI  t, 


YELLOW  NEWTON 


CHAPTER  X. 


COMMERCIAL  FRUIT  GROWING  IN  IDAHO. 

BY  JOHN  U.  MCPHERSON. 

State  Horticultural  Inspector, 

In  the  past  six  years  somewhere  near  one-quarter  of 
a million  acres  of  land  in  Idaho,  Oregon,  and  Washington 
have  been  planted  to  fruit,  the  major  portion  of  this  to 
apples.  The  number  of  trees  exceeds  15,000,000.  This 
is  about  one-fifth  of  the  entire  apple  growing  area  in  the 
United  States.  The  estimated  value  is  about  $200,000,000, 
and  practically  every  district  in  these  three  states,  where 
transportation  facilities  are  available,  has  its  commercial 
orchards.  Not  more  than  20  per  cent  of  the  total  plant- 
ings have  reached  what  may  be  termed  “in  full  bearing,” 
and  the  writer  does  not  believe  that  over  one-third  of  the 
whole  acreage  is  five  years  old  or  upward.  Each  year  is 
bringing  into  bearing  a great  many  thousand  acres,  and  it 
can  easily  be  seen  that  the  producing  area  is  being  added 
to  by  the  thousand  acres  each  year.  To  illustrate  what 
this  means,  it  is  estimated  that  the  trees  in  bearing  in 
1912  will  double  the  yield  per  car  of  commercial  fruit 
over  the  year  1910,  which  was  the  banner  year  of  the 
northwest  in  fruit  production. 

From  the  following  figures  can  be  seen  the  great 
strides  that  Idaho  has  made  in  the  last  few  years  in  fruit 
production  when  we  compare  it  with  the  producton  of  our 
two  sister  states.  This  estimate  is  based  upon  the  con- 
ditions of  1910  rather  than  upon  the  present  date,  and 
the  writer  believes  that  the  figures  are  conservative.  The 
state  of  Oregon  in  1910  had  a total  acreage  of  about  106,- 
000  acres,  with  about  5 per  cent  in  full  bearing,  and 
from  this  acreage  1,900  cars  were  shipped.  Washington, 
with  115,000  acres,  and  with  a percentage  in  bearing  a 
little  larger  than  Oregon,  shipped  something  over  5,000 


66 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


cars.  Idaho  with  60,000  acres,  and  about  15  per  cent  in 
bearing,  shipped  2,500  cars,  which  included  prunes  ana 
peaches,  at  a value  of  over  $2,000,000.  The  acreage 
planted  to  new  orchard  since  that  time  has  doubled,  and 
at  the  present  time  we  have  something  near  120,000  acres 
in  orchard,  and  each  year  a large  acreage  comes  into 
bearing.  It  is  estimated  by  one  of  the  largest  railroad 
companies  in  the  state  that  our  output  in  the  next  five 
years  will  be  between  five  and  seven  thousand  cars,  or 
more  than  double  the  output  of  1910. 

The  largest  plantings  in  Idaho,  this  last  season,  were 
in  the  Twin  Falls  country,  thousands  of  acres  being 
planted  to  orchard  in  Twin  Falls  and  Lincoln  counties. 
There  was  also  a very  large  planting  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  state,  where,  in  the  five  northern  counties,  the 
State  Horticultural  Department  inspected  over  600,000 
trees.  Not  only  in  these  counties  has  heavy  planting  been 
done,  but  all  over  the  state,  and  this  last  year,  several 
large  companies  planted  many  thousands  of  acres  to 
commercial  orchards.  The  varieties  planted  vary  some- 
what according  to  location  and  local  conditions,  as  well 
as  the  length  of  the  growing  season.  The  varieties  that  are 
most  extensively  raised  at  this  time,  and  which  are 
bringing  the  best  prices  in  the  eastern  markets  are  the 
Jonathan,  Rome  Beauty  and  Winesap,  these  being  our 
leaders,  although  we  can,  and  do,  raise  many  other  stan- 
dard varieties,  for,  in  fact,  we  raise  any  apple  raised  in  the 
northwest.  The  large  planting  in  the  state  of  1911  is  of 
standard  varieties. 

The  extensive  planting  of  1911  brought  up  the  question 
in  the  minds  of  some  of  the  large  growers  in  Idaho  as  to 
whether  the  markets  can  be  overdone  with  so  great  a 
planted  area.  It  is  a fact  that  the  states  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  will  always  be  called  upon  to  furnish  the 
markets  with  the  high  grade  commercial  apple.  Accord- 
ing to  the  statistics  of  1910,  the  output  of  apples  in  Idaho, 
Oregon  and  Washington  amounted  to  5,922,000  boxes. 
This  output  alone  would  not  supply  the  cities  of  New  York 
and  Chicago  with  fruit  if  it  were  distributed  one  box  per 
man  per  year.  And  going  a little  farther  into  this  matter. 


Commercial  Fruit  Growing  in  Idaho,  67 

the  output  of  apples  of  the  United  States  is  less  than  one- 
half  what  it  was  seventeen  years  ago.  According  to  sta- 
tistics for  the  year  1895,  60,540,000  barrels  were  raised, 
and  for  the  year  1911,  as  estimated,  only  30,000,000  bar- 
rels were  produced,  while  on  the  other  hand,  our  export 
trade  has  increased.  During  the  year  1897  our  export 
was  505,390  barrels;  for  1910  and  a portion  of  1911,  it 
was  1,721,706  barrels,  or  an  increase  of  1,000,000  in  the 
past  fourteen  years.  Thus,  while  the  production  has  de- 
creased, our  export  trade  has  greatly  increased. 

Another  great  factor  in  fruit  production  is  that  no  two 
districts  are  alike  in  all  respects.  Each  district  has  its 
marked  peculiarities.  No  variety  will  grow  alike  in  two 
districts,  and  in  some  instances  the  dissimilarity  is  very 
marked.  This  condition  jis  not,  however,  without  its 
value.  In  the  first  place  it  j justifies  specializing  of  variety 
in  sections  where  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  certain 
varieties  grow  to  better  advantage  than  others,  and  it 
helps  to  check  the  tendency  of  the  growers  to  set  out  an 
orchard  disregarding  circumstances,  and  to  consider  instead 
varieties  which  will  not  only  yield  better  quality,  but  will 
be  constant  yielders  year  after  year.  If  all  the  states  of 
the  northwest  were  able  to  raise  the  same  variety,  it  would 
not  be  but  a short  time  until  there  would  be  an  over-pro- 
duction of  those  certain  varieties,  but  there  is  a great  dif- 
ference in  the  growing  seasons  in  the  different  localities 
in  Idaho  where  apples  are  produced.  The  effect  of  this 
condition  is  of  great  value,  and  is  demonstrated  by  the 
fact  that  no  surplus  planting  of  any  one  variety  has  taken 
place  to  any  great  extent  up  to  date,  but  the  mixtures 
such  as  are  now  raised  have  been  such  as  to  meet  the 
wants  of  the  trade,  and  on  the  other  hand  it  will  give 
the  grower  the  best  net  returns  according  to  the  time  and 
money  which  he  has  put  into  the  production  of  this  fruit. 
It  also  spreads  the  time  of  harvesting  and  the  marketing 
season  over  a period  of  months  beginning  with  the 
Wealthy  apple,  which  is  packed  in  the  Boise,  Payette  and 
Weiser  valleys  from  the  first  to  the  middle  of  September, 
and  ending  with  the  Winesap  and  Rome  Beauty,  which 
come  in  the  month  of  November. 


68  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

Taking  all  of  these  conditions  into  consideration,  and 
knowing  that  the  eastern  states  can  never  compete  with 
the  western  slope  in  apple  production  on  account  of  their 
climatic  conditions,  it  can  easily  be  seen  that  if  we  hold 
to  our  present  high  standard,  and  try  to  better  it  as  fast 
as  possible,  that  there  will  never  be  a time  when  first  class 
fruit  will  not  be  in  demand. 

There  is  not  a state  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  that 
has  a greater  future  in  horticultural  work  than  has  th* 
state  of  Idaho.  We  can,  and  do,  produce  fruit  of  size, 
color  and  texture  that  cannot  be  surpassed  in  any  section. 
The  fruit  growers  of  Idaho  today  are  striving  to  produce 
quality  rather  than  quantity,  for  they  know  that  when  we 
can  attain  the  highest  in  quality',  that  the  matter  of  gainng 
quantity  is  very  easy,  and  it  is  certain  that  within  a very 
short  period  of  years  Idaho  will  be  classed  as  one  of  the 
best  horticultural  states  in  the'  west,  for  both  quality  and 
quantity  in  fruit  production. 

The  year  of  1912  marked  and  will  go  on  record  as  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  years  in  fruit  production  known 
in  the  history  of  the  state  both  in  large  and  small  fruits. 
The  number  of  cars  produced  last  year  was  3,775,  or  an 
increase  of  760  cars  over  the  year  1910,  which  was  the 
banner  year,  up  to  that  time,  in  the  history  of  the  state. 

This  large  production  of  the  past  year,  1912,  has  caused 
the  fruit  grower  to  look  for  more  and  better  markets,  both 
in  the  United  States  and  abroad.  There  have  been  a great 
many  plans  advanced  as  to  the  best  way  to  create  and  hold 
new  markets,  and  many  of  these  plans  are  founded  on 
good  ideas,  and  if  put  into  effect  should  be  of  great  benefit 
to  all  the  fruit  growers  of  the  state.  No  matter  what  plan 
may  be  adopted  it  must  be  backed  by  an  endorsement  of 
all  the  fruit  growers  of  this  state,  if  not  by  all  of  the 
northwest  states.  It  is,  without  a doubt,  up  to  each  and 
every  fruit  grower  of  Idaho  to  stand  behind  any  good  move- 
ment that  may  be  advanced  in  the  fruit  industry  in  any  of 
its  branches,  and  all  should  work  together  in  the  raising, 
packing  and  grading  of  fruits,  as  well  as  to  help  with  the 
financial  end  of  any  association. 

It  is  one  thing  to  raise  products,  which  you  think  the 


Commercial  Fruit  Growing  in  Idaho,  69 

consumer  should  have^  and  another  to  raise  the  thing 
which  he  wants.  The  requirements  of  the  consumer  must 
be  studied,  and  then  they  must  be  met.  When  markets 
are  poor  and  competition  keen,  it  is  only  the  best  product 
which  finds  a market  at  any  price.  When  markets  are 
good,  high  grade  products,  carefully  selected  and  packed, 
bring  top  prices,  while  poorer  grades  bring  less.  It  costs 
no  more  to  raise  good  crops  than  it  does  to  raise  poor 
ones. 

Careful  attention  to  this  question  distinguishes  the 
successful  fruit  raiser  from  his  unsuccessful  neighbor. 
The  first  step  toward  creating  markets,  and  holding  them, 
is  to  raise  a product  which  the  market  wants.  You  must 
be  in  a position  to  guarantee  that  your  products  are  as 
represented.  Without  this  guarantee  it  is  useless  to  try  and 
create  new  markets,  much  less  hold  them. 

This  great  production  of  fruit  this  past  year  has  been 
a benefit  to  all  fruit  growers  of  the  state  in  a great  many 
ways.  It  has  shown  the  need  of  co-operative  effort  along 
all  lines  of  horticulture,  and  I feel  safe  in  saying  that  this 
year  will  see  a great  advance,  not  only  along  the  line  of 
growing  what  the  markets  want,  but  by  a combined  effort 
new  and  better  markets  will  be  secured  and  held  for  all 
time  to  come^ 


CHAPTER  XL 


PRUNE  INDUSTRY  IN  IDAHO. 

By  C.  J.  SiNSEL,  National  Fruit  Judge. 

The  title  line  “Home  of  the  Purple  Prune”  has  rightly 
been  awarded  to  Idaho,  since  it  is  here  in  the  fertile  val- 
leys we  find  this  special  variety  of  fruit  growing  to  per- 
fection. 

A few  years  since  many  of  our  farmers  and  horticul- 
turists saw  a great  future  for  the  prune  industry,  and  as 
a consequence,  several  large  and  a great  many  small  prune 
orchards  were  planted.  At  this  time  many  were  disap- 
pointed in  the  returns  from  their  prune  crop,  since  it  was 
a new  industry  and  had  not  been  sufficiently  advertised  to 
create  a ready  demand  for  the  product.  After  a few  years 
of  disappointments  many  become  thoroughly  dissatisfied, 
and  cut  down  or  pulled  out  their  prune  trees.  About  this 
time  Idaho  prunes  had  gotten  a foothold  in  the  commercial 
world  and  in  place  of  being  unfavorably  looked  upon  in 
the  market,  a demand  was  created,  and  this  demand  has 
increased  annually  from  that  time  to  this.  About  five  years 
since  a great  many  realized  the  error  of  their  former 
actions  and  again  prune  trees  were  planted  in  great  num- 
bers, and  from  present  indications  the  men  who  were  for- 
tunate in  having  land  adapted  to  prune  growing  and  set 
the  same  to  Italian  prunes  are  reaping  a rich  reward  for 
their  efforts.  Prices  for  fresh  fruit  have  advanced  from 
packing  charges  to  twenty  and  thirty-five  dollars  per  tx)n 
for  the  fruit  at  the  orchard. 

Mr.  Horace  Day  of  New  York,  one  of  the  first  men  to 
engage  in  the  wholesale  fruit  business  in  that  city,  stated 
that  the  commercial  prune  was  successfully  grown  in  only 
three  districts  of  the  United  States,  and  that  of  these  three. 
Southern  Idaho  grew  the  best.  His  statement  was  based 
on  experience  he  has  had  in  handling  fresh  prunes  from  all 
parts  of  the  world,  covering  a period  of  fifty  years.  It  is 


72  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

on  such  judgment  that  I base  my  statement  that  Idaho 
leads  in  the  Italian  prune  industry. 

In  order  to  maintain  this  distinction  of  the  commercial 
prune  it  is  necessary  that  we  follow  a few  fixed  rules  that 
have  been  worked  out  by  years  of  experience  in  special- 
izing in  this  industry.  Some  years  since  it  was  thought 
necessary  to  set  every  fifth  row  in  the  orchard  to  French 
prunes  for  polonization.  We  have  since  learned  this  is  un- 
necessary, and  that  while  the  French  prune  grows  well 
here  it  does  not  sell  so  well  in  the  commercial  world. 
Again,  trimming,  spraying,  and  thinning  are  quite  an 
overhead  charge  in  many  orchards;  but  not  so  with  the 
Italian  prune.  When  the  tree  is  headed  and  started  in 
proper  form  but  little,  if  any,  trimming  is  necessary. 

As  to  spraying  up  to  the  present  time  it  has  been  neces- 
sary to  spray  for  San  Jose  scale  only. 

As  to  thinning  of  its  fruit,  the  prune  tree  will  carry 
only  what  it  can  mature,  healthy  trees  shedding  any  sur- 
plus during  the  month  of  June. 

Having  matured  a crop  it  is  the  final  and  essential 
move  to  market  them.  Prunes  are  prepared  in  two  ways 
for  marketing,  namely,  packed  in  natural  state,  or  by 
evaporation,  the  first  being  the  most  popular  form. 

When  the  fruit  has  gotten  its  growth,  water  should  be 
shut  off  from  the  orchard,  as  late  watering  causes  early 
deterioration  and  such  fruit  will  not  carry  well  to  the  east- 
ern markets.  At  this  time  permit  me  to  emphasize  the 
fact  that  many  make  the  mistake  of  too  much  water  just 
before  or  at  picking  time. 

Prunes  should  be  picked  carefully,  with  stems  on  if 
possible.  This  is  to  avoid  tearing  the  skins  of  the  fruit. 
The  fruit  should  then  be  allowed  to  cool  off  in  the  field 
boxes  before  packing,  then  carefully  packed  in  the  regular 
four  basket  crate.  A standard  export  crate  should  be  % 
sides,  % bottoms,  % ends,  % tops  and  four  cleats,  all  put 
together  with  4d  cement  coated  box  nails,  and  for  the  New 
York  market  the  Commissioner  of  Weights  has  decided 
that  all  packages  of  fruit  of  any  kind  whatsoever  must 
have  the  net  weight  stamped  on  the  outside,  and  if  the 
package  contains  baskets,  then  the  baskets  contained  there- 


Mm- 

. iir\ 


•■:  '.  ■ ! 


llBliAHY 


Of  the; 


■ 


ivv-f  •"'■;■,' 


. ' .v*' . Vv- v A ■,,;  V 


.r/  *■  ^'»... 


'fees 


r.-iw'.  ’.'If  ■ ■ ■' 


JVraniial  of  rTorticulliire,  Idaho. 


[M.ATR  VIII. 


TTATJAN  PRUNE 


Prune  Industry  in  Idaho 


73 


in  must  have  the  net  weight  stamped  on  each  basket.  From 
this  you  will  see  that  it  will  be  advisable  to  stamp  the  fol- 
lowing weights  on  each  package: 


Boxes  of  pears,  net  weight  40  lbs. 

Boxes  of  apples,  net  weight  40  lbs. 

Half  boxes  of  pears,  net  weight 20  lbs. 

Crates  of  prunes,  plums  and  grapes 20  lbs. 

Each  basket  in  crate,  net  weight 5 lbs. 

Crates  of  peaches,  net  weight 20  lbs. 


The  net  weight  of  all  kinds  of  fruit  will  have  to  be 
followed  out  on  the  above  schedule.  We  will  say  this  or- 
dinance is  going  to  be  positively  enforced,  so  we  ask  you  to 
give  this  matter  your  earnest  attention  in  order  to  avoid 
any  difficulties  that  may  arise  on  the  dock  if  you  do  not 
meet  the  requirements.  We  do  not  know  whether  there 
would  be  a penalty  or  not,  but  we  do  know  that  in  order  to 
comply  with  the  law  each  package  must  be  stamped  before 
it  can  be  sold  on  that  market.  However,  this  rigid  rule 
does  not  apply  to  all  markets,  but  the  one  here  quoted 
applies  especially  to  New  York,  and  since  many  of  our 
growers  ship  their  cars  and  divert  in  transit,  it  would  be 
well  to  have  every  package  marked. 

DRIED  PRUNES. 

Much  has  been  said  in  former  years  by  way  of  ridicule 
of  the  much  despised  boarding  house  dried  prunes,  but 
with  modern  methods  of  evaporating,  the  prune  has  become 
known  as  a delicacy  and  is  used  by  all  modern  housewives 
and  in  the  highest  class  cafes  and  dining  cars.  Several 
methods  of  curing  prunes  have  been  tried  and  the  better 
ones  adopted,  so  that  at  the  present  time  the  Idaho  Italian 
evaporated  prune  is  not  only  sought  for  in  the  commercial 
world  to  be  used  as  of  old,  namely,  stewed  prunes,  but 
many  are  sold  as  a confection.  As  the  quality  of  cured 
fruit  advances,  so  has  the  price  increased,  until  at  the 
present  time  well  cured  evaporated  Idaho  Italian  prunes 
sell  readily  at  from  six  to  eight  cents  per  pound  car  lots, 
f.  0.  b.  loading  station.  This  form  of  marketing  prunes  is 


74  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Impection 

annually  increasing,  and  I here  predict  that  in  the  near 
future  our  growers  will  realize  the  absolute  necessity  of 
providing  themselves  with  evaporators  as  well  as  canning 
plants,  with  which  to  care  for  the  imperfect  or  over-ripe 
fruit.  Such  plants  could  be  built  for  a nominal  sum  and 
could  be  used  through  which  to  commercialize  many  of  the 
by-products  of  the  farm. 


SUMMARY. 

After  having  given  twenty  years  of  careful  study  and 
close  observation  to  the  Italian  prune  industry  of  Southern 
Idaho,  I honestly  feel  that  Idaho  has  a splendid  future  in 
this  industry,  and  by  carefully  caring  for  the  orchards  so 
as  to  produce  first  quality  fruit  as  nearly  as  possible,  fol- 
lowing the  growing  in  this  careful  manner  by  proper 
grading,  and  shipping  only  the  fancy  in  the  ripe  state,  and 
by  treating  all  other  grades  by  evaporating  or  canning,  a 
cash  market  can  be  built  up  for  this  great  nationally  ad- 
mired fruit. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


EUROPEAN  GRAPES  IN  THE  CLEARWATER  VALLEY 
BY  ROBERT  SCHLEICHER. 

ADAPTABILITY  OF  THIS  VALLEY  TO  GRAPE  CULTURE. 

It  is  always  a surprise  to  people  unacquainted  with  the 
climate  of  the  valleys  of  the  Snake  and  Clearwater  rivers, 
in  Washington  and  Idaho,  to  be  told  that  the  tender  foreign 
varieties  of  grapes  {Vitis  vinifera)  grow  there  in  as  great 
perfection  as  they  do  either  in  California,  Europe  or  Asia. 
This  surprise  is  often  so  great  that  it  degenerates  into  doubt, 
and  can  be  removed  only  by  ocular  demonstrations.  If  one 
will  take  the  trouble,  however,  to  ascertain  what  is  needed 
for  the  production  of  these  varieties,  he  will  find  that  this 
portion  of  the  Pacific  Northwest  possesses  those  require- 
ments to  such  a degree  as  to  make  it  an  ideal  climate  for 
that  purpose. 


A QUESTION  OF  CLIMATE. 

The  culture  of  the  grape,  being  of  such  great  commercial 
importance  over  the  larger  portion  of  Europe,  has  received 
more  scientific  study  and  research  than  any  other  fruit. 
Through  years  of  continued  observation,  French  scien- 
tists have  ascertained  the  number  of  degrees  of  heat  and 
daily  mean  temperature  necessary  to  cause  the  vine  to 
leaf  out;  also  the  heat  necessary  to  make  it  bloom,  and 
again  the  daily  mean  temperature,  and  the  amount  of  sun- 
shine required  to  ripen  the  fruit.  They  have  found  that  it 
is  important  that  for  a month  following  the  formation  of 
the  seed  the  mean  temperature  should  not  fall  below  66 
degrees  Fahr.,  that  65  degrees  is  the  lowest  at  which  grapes 
will  ripen,  that  the  mean  heat  of  the  period  between  the  be- 
ginning of  vegetation  of  the  vine  to  the  ripening  of  the 
fruit  must  be  at  least  59  degrees,  and  that  the  most  im- 
portant season  is  twenty  days  prior  to  the  ripening  of  the 


76 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  luspection 


fruit,  during  which  time  the  mean  daily  temperature  should 
be  73.5  degrees. 

The  valley  at  the  confluence  of  the  Snake  and  Clear- 
water rivers  is  therefore  compared  with  the  best  known 
grape-growing  centers  of  California. 

Count  de  Gasparino,  who  is  called  the  founder  of  agri- 
cultural meterology,  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  not 
heat  alone,  but  sufficient  direct  sunshine  upon  the  plants 
is  a requisite  of  perfect  fruit  ripening.  The  scope  of  this 
article  does  not  allow  of  printing  the  comparative  tables 
in  full,  but  from  the  Signal  Service  reports  we  again  find 
that  in  the  number  of  clear  days  from  April  to  October, 
Lewiston  is  exceeded  by  only  one  place  in  California.  If 
we  take  into  further  consideration  that,  being  nearly  10 
degrees  of  latitude  further  north  than  the  points  of  com- 
parison in  California,  the  increase  length  of  days  during 
the  summer  in  these  valleys  gives  an  average  of  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour  daily  more  sunshine. 

Prof.  E.  J.  Wickson,  in  his  ‘‘California  Fruits,’’  quoting 
Tyndall,  says  that  a sheet  of  vapor  acts  as  a screen  to  the 
earth,  being  in  a great  measure  impervious  to  heat,  and 
therefore,  “it  is  not  necessary  that  there  should  be  clouds 
to  lessen  the  chemical  effects  of  sun  heat  in  fruit  ripening; 
not  only  do  clouds  intercept  sunshine,  but  watery  vapor  in 
the  air,  when  to  the  eye  the  sun  is  as  bright  as  ever,  can 
absorb  a large  quantity  of  effective  rays  and  so  retard 
fruit  ripening.  Hence,  an  apparently  sunny  country,  which 
has  much  invisible  watery  vapor  in  the  air,  may  prove 
defective  in  fruit  ripening  qualities.”  The  following  table, 
compiled  from  the  report  of  the  Chief  Signal  officer,  gives 
the  mean  relative  humidity  of  the  places  named  from  April 
to  October: 


Lewiston-Clarkston  48.3 

Los  Angeles,  California  68.8 

San  Diego,  California 74 

Sacramento,  California 60.9 

Fresno,  California 49.8 

New  York  City,  N.  Y 72.5 

Cincinnati,  Ohio  67.6 

St.  Louis,  Mo 80.1 


European  Grapes  in  the  Clearwater  Valley  77 

From  the  above  it  is  seen  that  the  Snake  and  Clear- 
water valleys  have  the  least  relative  humidity.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  to  the  excessive  atmospheric  humidity  and  its 
neutralizing  effect  on  the  sunlight,  together  with  the  lack  of 
sunshine,  is  due  the  failure  of  the  foreign  varieties  of 
grapes  in  the  Atlantic  states. 

Now,  having  shown  that  this  climate  possesses  in  an 
eminent  degree  all  that  is  needed  to  make  it  perfect  for 
grape-growing  according  to  the  requirements  based  upon 
researches  of  scientists,  should  any  of  these  be  fallacious 
or  open  to  doubt,  the  fact  remains  indisputable  that  we 
produce  in  greatest  perfection,  not  only  the  grapes  that 
thrive  in  middle  Europe,  but  those  originated  in  Spain, 
Italy,  Northern  Africa  and  Asia;  and  we  have  no  less 
authority  than  that  of  Colonel  Brackett,  Pomologist  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  who  some  years  ago  traveled 
out  of  his  way  to  assure  himself  that  grapes  which  were 
exhibited  as  Idaho  grapes  were  really  grown  in  Lewiston 
valley,  and  stated  that  after  an  exhaustive  inspection  of 
California  vineyards,  a few  weeks  previous  to  his  visit, 
he  had  seen  nothing  there  to  excel,  and  little  to  equal, 
what  he  saw  here. 

VARIETIES  FOR  DIFFERENT  PURPOSES. 

The  early  plantings  of  grapes  in  this  valley  were 
mainly  of  Sweetwater  and  other  Chasselas  varieties,  and 
Black  Hamburg.  While  all  of  these,  and  especially  the 
latter,  are  deservedly  favorites  for  home  consumption 
and  shipment  to  near-by  markets,  their  planting  in  the 
future  is  not  to  be  recommended  on  any  extensive  scale. 
Commercial  vineyards  should  be  of  those  varieties  which, 
besides  being  large  and  showy,  have  good  keeping  qualities 
and  are  hard  enough  of  texture  to  stand  shipment  to  dis- 
tant markets.  The  best  known  among  them  are: 

The  Flame  Tokay.  While  not  of  high  quality,  is  of 
such  large  size,  both  in  bunch  and  berry,  and  so  attractive 
in  appearance,  and  such  a good  shipper  as  well  as  immense 
bearer,  that  it  has  become  the  leading  table  grape  shipped 
from  California  to  eastern  markets,  where  it  outsells  all 


78  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

other  grapes.  It  colors  and  ripens  remarkably  well  here, 
especially  in  elevated  situations.  Next  in  importance  we 
would  place  the 

White  Malaga.  A very  strong  grower  and  heavy 
bearer,  with  good  sized  bunches  of  large  berries,  which, 
owing  to  the  looseness  of  the  bunch,  is  a better  keeper  than 
the  Tokay  and  fully  as  good  a shipper,  but,  not  being  so 
attractive  in  appearance,  does  not  command  quite  so  good 
a price. 

Rammonia  of  Transylvania.  A late  importation  from 
eastern  Europe  which  has  proved  itself  a great  success  in 
the  Snake  and  Clearwater  valleys.  It  is  a dark  blue  grape 
of  immense  size,  not  quite  so  good  a shipper  as  the  two 
foregoing,  but  which  outsells  all  others  wherever  it  has 
been  marketed  in  the  last  few  years.  This  variety  is  not 
grown  in  California  to  any  great  extent,  probably  because 
it  was  not  introduced  there,  but  has  attracted  more  atten- 
tion to  the  grape-growing  possibilities  of  this  section  than 
any  other  variety. 

Emperor.  A large  black  grape  of  good  shipping  quali- 
ties, which  has  proven  very  unsatisfactory  in  some  parts  of 
California,  and  highly  satisfactory  in  other  parts;  has 
been  grown  here  for  a number  of  years  very  successfully. 

Muscat  of  Alexandria.  This  is  the  only  grape  tried 
here  which  does  not  yield  full  crops  regularly,  owing  to 
“coulure,”  or  dropping  off  of  the  berries  at  blooming  time 
in  some  seasons,  yet  is  very  valuable  in  locations  where  it 
thrives.  It  seems  to  do  better  on  sandy  river  bottoms 
than  on  higher  ground. 

Rose  of  Peru.  While  it  ripens  with  the  earliest,  will 
hang  on  the  vines  until  winter,  and  resists  the  damage 
done  by  the  fall  rains  better  than  any  others;  is  worth  a 
place  in  any  vineyard.  It  is  not  adapted  to  long  shipment. 

Black  Cornichon.  Has  come  to  the  front  in  the  last 
few  years  in  California  as  a leading  late-shipping  grape. 
It  is  successfully  grown  here  and  will  likely  prove  of  good 
value. 

The  list  of  good  varieties  which  can  be  grown  success- 
fully here  is  not  by  any  means  limited  to  the  above,  but 
they  are  the  ones  that  have  been  planted  most  extensively 


European  Grapes  in  the  Clearwater  Valley  79 

and  have  proven  profitable.  The  writer  has  a collection  of 
over  fifty  varieties  on  trial,  from  the  hardiest  grown  in 
northern  Europe  to  those  originating  in  southern  Europe 
and  Asia,  and  a number  of  them  have  merits  which  make 
them  deserving  of  more  extensive  planting.  Notable 
among  these  is  the  Hunisa,  a variety  the  cuttings  of  which 
were  sent  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  by  a mission- 
ary from  Aintab  in  Syria,  in  1902,  and  reputed  to  be  the 
best  keeper  of  any  grape  known,  being  usually  kept  in 
good  condition  until  March  at  its  native  home.  This  repu- 
tation is  likely  to  be  sustained  in  this  climate,  as  far  as 
one  can  judge  from  two  year’s  observation. 

SOIL,  EXPOSURE,  METHODS  OF  PLANTING,  CULTIVATION, 
TRAINING,  PRUNING,  ETC. 

The  different  soils  of  this  valley,  from  the  sandy  river 
bottoms  to  the  loamy  hillsides,  have  all  proven  themselves 
good  for  grape  culture,  and  different  analyses  show  them 
to  contain  in  proper  and  liberal  proportions  every  element 
required  to  grow  abundant  crops  for  many  years  to  come 
without  the  aid  of  fertilizers.  The  vine,  however,  appre- 
ciates good,  deep  soil  and  will  grow  and  bear  fruit  in  pro- 
portion to  its  supply  of  it;  and  there  are  hillsides  over- 
looking both  the  Snake  and  Clearwater  rivers,  overlaid 
with  several  feet  of  good,  loose  soil,  rich  in  humus,  a 
given  area  of  which  will  probably,  year  after  year,  pro- 
duce twice  as  much  as  poorer  lands  having  but  a few 
inches  of  vegetable  soil  overlaying  the  hard-pan.  The 
hillsides,  besides  having  richer  soil,  have  greater  immunity 
from  late  spring  and  early  fall  frosts,  and  will  no  doubt 
prove  the  choice  locations  for  future  planting  wherever 
water  for  irrigation  can  be  brought  onto  them. 

Plowing  to  the  depth  of  12  to  15  inches  will  be  sufficient 
preparation  for  vineyard  planting  on  the  sandy  bottom 
lands,  but  on  the  higher  lands  where  the  subsoil  is  harder 
or  underlaid  with  clay,  following  the  turning  plow  with  a 
subsoiler  and  thereby  loosening  the  soil  to  the  depth  of 
20  inches  or  more  will  be  found  to  prove  a decided  advan- 
tage, the  good  effects  therefrom  being  appreciable  for 
eight  or  ten  years  after  planting. 


80  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

Either  cuttings  or  rooted  vines  can  be  used  for  start- 
ing a vineyard,  but  while  the  latter  cost  several  times  as 
much  as  the  former  in  cash  outlay,  when  the  uniform  stand 
and  more  satisfactory  growth  of  the  rooted  vines  is  con- 
sidered, it  is  good  economy  to  use  them.  There  is  quite  a 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  distance  to  leave  between 
vines  and  rows  in  planting  a vineyard,  but  usually  more 
room  is  given  now  than  formerly.  For  strong-growing 
varieties  of  table  grapes,  such  as  those  named  above,  we 
would  advise  planting  in  rows,  vines  8 feet,  and  the  rows 
8 to  10  feet  apart;  the  latter  distance  if  it  is  expected  to 
use  two  horses  in  cultivating. 

It  is  preferable  in  this  climate  to  plant  the  rows  north 
and  south  wherever  practicable,  as  a protection  of  the 
crop  from  sunburn  during  the  extreme  heat  of  July  and 
August.  If,  however,  this  is  impracticable,  the  greatest 
care  must  be  used  not  to  do  any  summer  pruning  on  the 
south  side  of  the  rows. 

It  is  advisable  to  use  water  in  the  holes  in  which  the 
vines  are  planted,  and  if  a good  growth  can  be  secured  by 
cultivation  alone  without  any  more  watering  the  same 
season,  and  even  during  the  second  one,  the  vines  will 
develop  a much  better  root  system  by  striking  deeper  into 
the  soil. 

It  is  a difficult  and  lengthy  matter  to  lay  down  rules 
for  pruning  a vineyard,  the  scope  of  this  article  will  not 
permit  of  it;  but  we  might  say  to  the  intending  planter  of 
a vineyard  that  his  knowledge  of  pruning  will  grow  along 
with  his  vines  if  he  will  only  give  the  subject  careful 
thought  and  observe  the  practice  of  others. 

IRRIGATION. 

Irrigation  of  vineyards,  and  the  amount  of  water 
needed,  is  a local  and  specific  question,  and  depends  upon 
the  following  two  conditions,  which  are:  The  amount  of 
the  seasonal  rainfall,  and  the  character  of  the  soil  and  sub- 
soil and  its  retentiveness.  River  bottom  vineyards  with 
loose,  gravelly  subsoils  may  need  three  or  four  irrigations 
a year,  while  side-hill  plantations  in  loam  with  clay  subsoil 
may  raise  a good  crop  with  one  irrigation,  but  with 


of  1 1 ort iculturo,  Iclalio. 


PI.ATE  IX. 


View  in  the  Vineyard  of  Robert  Schleicher  at  Lewiston.  Idaho. 


European  Grapes  in  the  Clearwater  Valley  81 

thorough  and  timely  cultivation  implied  in  both  cases. 
It  will  be  safer  to  state,  from  results  obtained  from  prac- 
tical experiments  made  here  covering  some  twenty  years, 
that  an  acre-foot  of  water,  added  to  the  rainfall,  will  be 
more  than  ample  to  secure  a bountiful  crop  and  keep  the 
vines  in  the  best  of  condition.  This  is  about  the  amount  of 
water,  from  25  to  30  inches  a year,  that  falls  in  the  coun- 
tries which  are  considered  the  most  fruitful  in  the  world, 
with  the  advantage  in  this  instance  of  the  irrigation  water 
being  applied  at  the  very  time  when  it  is  needed,  with  very 
little  waste  by  evaporation  as  compared  with  that  which 
takes  place  when  all  the  moisture  is  supplied  by  rainfall. 
In  locations  where  water  is  plentiful  in  winter  and  scarce 
in  summer,  winter  irrigation  of  vineyards  has  proven  a 
great  success;  a thorough  soaking  of  the  soil  during  the 
dormant  season,  followed  by  good  cultivation  during  the 
period  of  growth,  with  possibly  one  irrigation  in  July 
just  before  the  ripening  of  the  fruit,  has  given  better 
results  than  several  irrigations  during  spring  and  summer. 

MARKETS  AND  MARKETING. 

The  supply  of  grapes  grown  in  this  valley  having  been 
limited  up  to  the  present  time,  the  market  has  been  re- 
stricted to  near-by  towns  and  cities,  and  while  grape 
growing  has  been  fairly  remunerative,  the  profits  to  the 
grower  will  increase  as  the  acreage  planted  in  the  valley 
becomes  larger.  The  difference  in  transportation  charges 
alone  between  express  rates  which  the  grower  pays  now, 
and  car-load  rates  by  freight,  which  he  will  pay  when 
there  are  car-load  lots  to  ship,  is  in  most  cases  enough  to 
make  a difference  of  $150  per  acre  a year  in  the  net 
profits.  The  demand  for  good  grapes,  covering  a season 
of  three  or  four  months,  is  limited  only  by  the  supply 
of  a good  article,  and,  with  transportation  charges  as 
low  as  those  given  California  growers,  this  valley  can 
claim  the  whole  United  States  for  a market. 

This  section  has  suffered  in  the  past,  and  is  suffering 
yet,  from  unjust  and  discriminating  express  and  freight 
rates,  allowing  California  to  lay  down  her  products  in  the 


82  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

markets  of  the  northwest  at  rates  denied  to  the  local 
growers.  The  attention  of  those  in  charge  of  making 
these  rates  has  been  called  to  their  unfairness,  and  relief 
has  been  promised  for  the  future.  With  all-rail  communi- 
cation bringing  Lewiston-Clarkston  within  12  to  14  hours 
of  Portland  and  the  Sound  cities,  as  against  40  and  50 
hours  to  the  same  places  from  grape  growing  points  in 
California,  it  is  but  fair  to  assume  that  whenever  this 
valley  produces  large  enough  quantities  to  supply  those 
markets,  freight  and  express  rates  will  be  made  which 
will  remedy  the  present  most  unequal  conditions. 

WINE-MAKING. 

The  experiments  in  wine-making,  conducted  here  for 
some  years,  have  resulted  in  notable  success;  the  dry 
wines  of  the  Sauterne  and  Rhenish  types  having  been 
pronounced  by  connoisseurs  as  coming  nearer  to  the  Euro- 
pean wines  than  any  grown  in  California.  It  has  been 
known  for  hundreds  of  years  that  the  best  wines  were 
produced  near  the  northern  limit  of  possible  grape  culture 
and  mostly  on  the  slopes  overlooking  large  rivers.  These 
conditions  are  met  in  an  ideal  way  in  the  Lewiston-Clarks- 
ton valley. 

Wines  produced  here  were  given  high  awards  at  Buf- 
falo, St.  Louis  and  Portland  expositions,  and  no  less  an 
authority  than  the  late  Prof.  George  Hussman,  of  Napa, 
California,  for  forty  years  the  leading  writer  in  the  United 
States  on  grape  growing  and  wine  making,  and  father  of 
George  C.  Hussman,  the  present  Pomologist  in  charge  of 
viticultural  investigations  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  writes  under  date  of  May  15,  1902,  con- 
cerning a bottle  of  Idaho  Sauterne  sent  him  for  his 
opinion:  “I  called  in  the  best  judge  of  wines  we  have 
here.  We  tasted  it  together  and  pronounced  it  a very  good 
wine,  equal  to  the  best  wines  made  in  this  county  (Napa), 
which  we  claim  makes  the  best  dry  wines  in  the  state.  It 
is  a good  sound  wine  which  ought  to  sell  anywhere  among 
wine  drinkers  of  the  right  sort ; wine  which  makes  glad  the 
heart.  At  my  age  (74)  it  is  highly  gratifying  to  me  to 


European  Grapes  in  the  Clearwater  Valley  83 

find  that  my  efforts  since  1850  in  the  cause  of  grape  cul- 
ture and  the  making  of  pure  wine  have  not  been  in  vain.” 

As  these  wines  were  made  from  grapes  which  have 
more  of  a reputation  for  table  use  than  for  wine  making, 
and  as  none  of  the  makers  had  any  previous  experience  in 
wine  making,  in  other  countries,  and  as  the  encouraging 
results  so  far  are  due  entirely  to  soil  and  climate,  there  is 
justification  for  the  belief  that  when  wines  made  here 
within  the  last  two  years,  from  grapes  used  in  making  the 
celebrated  growths  of  France  and  Germany  get  age 
enough  to  develop  their  highest  quality,  there  is  a possi- 
bility of  results  that  might  realize  the  most  sanguine 
hopes.  At  all  events  there  is  a splendid  field  for  intelli- 
gent experimentation  in  this  line,  and  it  may  not  be  too 
visionary  to  dream  of  the  slopes  and  hillsides  of  the 
Snake  and  Clearwater  rivers  being  in  the  near  future 
covered  with  thrifty  vineyards,  drawing  on  the  accumu- 
lated fertility  of  the  past  ages,  and  transforming  it  into 
wealth,  as  have  those  on  the  hills  of  the  Rhine  and  the 
Moselle,  the  Rhone  and  the  Garonne,  the  quality  of  whose 
products  has  inspired  poetry  and  song  for  the  past 
thousand  years,  and  made  them  the  wealthiest  sections  in 
the  world. 

From  an  economic  standpoint,  the  business  of  growing 
table  grapes  and  that  of  wine-making  go  hand  in  hand, 
and  every  owner  of  a vineyard  of  any  size  should  be 
prepared  to  take  care  of  at  least  a small  portion  of  his 
crop  by  pressing  it  into  wine;  or,  if  he  has  conscientious 
scruples  in  the  matter,  manufacturing  unfermented  grape 
juice,  which  has  lately  become  an  article  of  almost  general 
consumption. 

Upon  this,  the  moral  side  of  viticulture,  F.  T.  Bioletti, 
Assistant  Professor  of  Viticulture  in  the  University  of 
California,  who  lately  returned  from  a prolonged  sojourn 
abroad  on  behalf  of  the  viticultural  interests  of  the  state 
of  California,  made  the  following  remarks  before  the  State 
Farmers’  Institute  at  Berkeley  a short  time  ago:  “No 
satisfactory  reason  has  been  given  why  the  nations  of 
southern  Europe  are  more  temperate  than  those  of  the 
northern  countries,  except  that  they  drink  wine  instead 


84  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Infection 

of  ardent  spirits.  Drunkenness,  which  is  the  curse  of 
the  country  districts  of  England,  Germany  and  Scandi- 
navia, is  almost  unknown  in  Spain,  Italy  and  southern 
France,  especially  in  the  wine-producing  districts.  My 
contention  is  not  that  wine  will  not  intoxicate,  but  sta- 
tistics prove  that  wine-drinking  and  sobriety  go  hand  in 
hand,  and  whether  or  not  wine  has  any  direct  influence 
in  the  cause  of  temperance,  it  certainly  has  no  influence 
in  the  contrary  direction.  Anything  which  can  be  said 
against  the  use  of  wine  by  healthy,  normal,  human  beings 
can  be  said  with  far  more  force  and  truth  against  the 
use  of  tea,  coffee,  or  any  of  the  numerous  articles  of 
our  ordinary  diet  which,  in  excess,  have  deleterious 
effects.'^ 

DISEASES  OF  VINES,  PHYLLOXERA  AND  RESISTANT  STOCKS. 

Grape-vines  have  been  remarkably  free  from  disease 
in  this  valley,  mildew  having  so  far  made  its  appearance 
only  for  a season  or  two  and  having  readily  given  way 
under  the  application  of  ground  sulphur  once  or  twice 
during  the  season. 

The  much-dreaded  phylloxera,  which  has  raised  such 
havoc  in  the  vineyards  of  Europe  and  California,  has 
fortunately  not  been  brought  here  yet,  and,  if  proper  care 
be  taken  not  to  import  any  vines  from  districts  infected  with 
it,  it  can  forever  be  kept  out.  The  laws  governing  the  im- 
portation of  nursery  stock  into  both  Washington  and 
Idaho,  if  properly  enforced  by  the  Fruit  Inspectors  of  the 
several  districts,  will  be  ample  protection.  If,  however, 
in  spite  of  all  precaution,  it  should  make  its  appearance 
in  this  valley,  recourse  would  have  to  be  had  to  what 
has  proven  the  most  successful  method  of  combatting  it, 
the  planting  of  resistant  vines.  A resistant  vine  is  one 
which  is  capable  of  keeping  alive  and  growing  even  when 
phylloxera  are  living  upon  its  roots,  and  some  of  the 
wild  vines  growing  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  have  this 
quality.  The  fruit  of  these  vines  is,  however,  so  undesir- 
able, that  recourse  must  be  had  to  grafting  upon  these 
roots  vines  of  the  varieties  wanted,  and  thus  use  them 
only  as  stocks.  This  makes  tht  initial  cost  of  raising  a 


Europtan  Grape$  in  tht  Clearwater  Valley  85 

vineyard  several  times  as  high  as  when  vines  can  be 
raised  on  their  own  roots.  In  spite  of  this  increased  cost 
at  the  beginning,  it  would  be  true  economy  to  plant  new 
and  extensive  vineyards  with  resistant  stocks  but  for  the 
following  reasons:  While  the  European  vine  (Vitis 
vinifera)  is  remarkable  among  cultivated  plants  for  the 
wide  range  of  soils  in  which  it  will  succeed — ranging 
from  the  lightest  sands  to  the  heaviest  clays,  from  dry 
hilltops  to  low,  moist  plains — this  is  not  the  case  with  the 
resistant  stocks.  Some  are  suited  to  rich,  moist  soils, 
others  only  to  dry,  rocky  ones.  Again,  there  is  a lack 
of  affinity  between  the  Vitis  vinifera  and  some  resistant 
stocks,  certain  varieties  doing  well  on  some  stocks  and 
refusing  to  bear  on  others.  This  leaves  an  intricate 
problem  of  adaptation  and  affinity  to  solve  for  each 
different  locality,  and,  until  this  is  done  in  a thorough 
manner,  it  would  be  too  expensive  and  risky  to  make 
large  plantings  with  resistant  stocks.  Under  the  direction 
of  the  Experimental  Station  of  the  University  of  Idaho, 
the  writer  is  at  present  testing  ten  different  kinds  of 
resistant  roots,  also  some  grafted  vines  upon  different 
stocks.  These  were  procured  from  the  University  of 
California,  with  the  kindly  assistance  of  the  viticulturists 
of  that  institution,  selections  being  made  which,  from 
their  experience,  would  be  most  likely  to  prove  successful 
in  this  locality.  These  experiments,  when  completed, 
with  others  which  are  contemplated,  will  in  all  probability 
give  the  knowledge  necessary  to  put  the  vineyards  of  the 
valley  upon  the  best  possible  resistant  basis,  if  there 
should  arise  the  necessity  for  it  in  future  years.  This 
necessity  need  not  arise,  however,  if  planters  will  pro- 
cure their  vines  and  cuttings  from  the  vineyards  here 
already  in  bearing,  which  are  free  from  disease,  and  from 
which  a list  of  varieties  can  be  selected  including  the 
leading  and  best  for  the  different  purposes. 

FUTURE  OF  THE  TABLE  GRAPE  BUSINESS. 

The  Secretary  of  the  California  Fruit  Shippers'  Asso- 
ciation, in  his  report  at  the  close  of  the  very  prosperous 


86  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

season  of  1905,  calls  particular  attention  to  the  increased 
demand  in  the  eastern  states  for  California  grapes  at  good 
prices,  and  recommends  the  planting  of  larger  acreage  to 
keep  up  with  the  expanding  markets. 

In  a late  interview  by  the  Sacramento  Bee,  Mr.  A.  B. 
Humphrey,  a prominent  grape-grower  and  shipper  of 
Sacramento  county,  just  returned  from  a four-months’ 
tour  of  the  eastern  and  middle  western  states,  where  he 
went  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  grape  market, 
methods  of  handling  the  crop,  of  diverting  cars  in  transit 
and  the  conditions  that  must  prevail  to  continue  the  splen- 
did prices  of  the  past  seasons,  says  that  he  has  returned 
stronger  than  ever  in  the  belief  of  the  impossibility  of 
overdoing  the  table-grape  market. 

In  fact,  the  market  for  Tokays,  Mr.  Humphrey  says, 
is  practically  in  its  infancy,  so  far  as  concerns  the 
grower  of  Tokay  of  superior  quality  and  color.  It  is 
the  attractive  color,  the  deep,  rich  crimson,  that  dealers 
first  look  for,  and  the  Tokay  that  has  this  essential  char- 
acteristic necessarily  has  the  flavor.  Mr.  Humphrey  ex- 
pressed surprise  at  the  large  number  of  eastern  cities 
whose  markets  have  never  offered  a California  table  grape 
for  sale. 

Now,  as  every  condition  which  works  for  the  extension 
of  the  table  grape  industry  in  California  applies  as 
fully  to  this  valley,  both  as  regards  the  production  of  a 
superior  article  and  the  expanding  markets,  it  is  evident 
that  no  more  profitable  use  can  be  made  of  every  acre 
of  land  than  planting  it  to  choice  table  grapes,  wherever 
the  climatic  conditions  meet  the  necessary  requirements. 

In  this  connection  we  might  add  that  a grape  exhibit 
from  the  Lewiston-Clarkston  valley  at  the  St.  Louis  Expo- 
sition in  1904  got  as  high  an  award  as  California,  the 
coloring  and  flavor  of  the  Tokays  being  admitted  by 
California  exhibitors  to  be  equal  to  the  finest  their  state 
could  produce. 

A display  made  by  a grower*  of  this  valley  at  the 
Portland  Fair,  1905,  in  competition  with  California, 


• This  was  Mr.  Robert  Schleicher. — [Ed.] 


European  Grapes  in  the  Clearwater  Valley  87 

brought  forth  a letter  from  Prof.  H.  E.  Van  Deman,  Ex- 
Pomologist  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  Presi- 
dent of  the  Horticultural  Jury  at  the  Lewis  and  Clark 
Exposition.  He  wrote:  “No  doubt  you  have  received  the 
notice  of  what  I awarded  you,  and  I wish  you  could  have 
had  more  than  one  gold  medal,  for  you  deserved  it.  You 
made  the  best  grape  display  at  the  exposition.  I was 
much  pleased  with  the  crispness  and  good  flavor  of  some 
of  the  grapes  you  sent,”  etc.,  etc. 


IMaiiuul  (ji‘  liurtic  Li  It  Lire,  Idaliu. 


I 'LATE  X. 


DELICIOUS  APPLE 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


SCIENCE  OF  GRADING  AND  PACKING  APPLES— 
DIAGONAL  PACK. 

By  Roy  C.  Brock,  Hood  River,  Oregon. 

(By  permission  of  Better  Fruit). 

Grading  for  both  quality  and  size  is  so  closely  related 
to  the  packing  of  apples  that  it  seems  almost  necessary  to 
deal  shortly  with  it.  Grading  should  begin  with  the  pick- 
ing of  the  fruit  from  the  trees.  Pickers,  after  having 
taken  the  fruit  from  the  trees  into  pails,  bags  or  other 
receptacles,  should  be  required  to  empty  them  into  the 
apple  boxes,  which  are  to  be  taken  to  the  places  for  stor- 
ing, not  by  pouring,  but  by  hand,  and  then  as  though 
each  fruit  was  an  egg.  During  this  transfer  the  picker 
should  look  for  fruits  badly  blemished,  and  place  either  in 
boxes  or  in  piles  under  the  shaded  side  of  the  trees,  in 
order  that  they  may  be  gathered  and  so  disposed  of  as 
each  grower's  conditions  will  permit.  The  fruit  so  assorted 
may  then  be  stored  in  the  place  for  receiving  them,  and 
left  until  such  time  as  the  owner  is  desirous  of  packing, 
at  which  time  the  fruit  should  be  carefully  assorted  in 
readiness  for  the  packers.  Of  course  the  appliances  used 
will  largely  govern  the  further  direct  plan  of  procedure. 
However,  the  writer,  after  carefully  investigating  the 
plans  used  in  Wenatchee,  Yakima,  southern  Idaho  and 
Hood  River,  believes  the  most  convenient  plan  for  hand- 
ling, and  the  one  that  grings  the  best  results  as  to  saving 
of  time,  expense,  labor  and  from  general  confusion,  is  the 
proper  establishment  of  appliances  as  follows.  (This 
refers  to  the  handling  of  the  average  crop  of  from  2,000 
to  20,000  boxes  of  apples;  either  greater  or  smaller  crops 
may  require  different  plans  of  procedure) : 

In  building  a storing  house  with  packing  compartment 
thereto,  the  opening  between  the  storing  room  and  the 


90  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

packing  shed  should  be  made  in  the  center  of  the  side 
of  the  storing  room,  and  not  in  the  end  of  the  building. 
By  using  the  proper  and  most  complete  packing  table  all 
the  materials  needed  in  packing  may  be  readily  at  hand 
and  save  considerable  loss  of  the  packer’s  time  in  waiting 
to  be  supplied  with  same.  The  packing  tables  should  be 
equipped  with  proper  and  handy  places  for  lining  paper, 
layer  board,  wrapping  paper,  etc.,  and  so  arranged  that 
the  packer  may  have  three  diferent  sizes  before  him  at  one 
time.  For  instance,  while  packer  No.  1 is  packing,  say, 
72,  112  and  128,  packer  No.  2 may  utilize  the  three  prob- 
able other  sizes  that  No.  1 cannot  then  use — 80,  88  and  96. 
As  Packer  No.  1 completes  one  of  his  numbers  he  has  but 
to  notice  the  size  about  completed  by  No.  2,  and  if  the 
contents  of  the  tables  used  by  No.  1 and  No.  2 show  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  the  best  sized  apples  used  by  No. 
2 in  completing  his  nearly  finished  box.  No.  1 may  then 
commence  a box  of  the  same  size,  and  likewise  each  other 
packer.  In  this  way  all  the  sizes  may  be  kept  cleaned 
from  the  tables  and  a packing  of  the  different  sizes  dis- 
tributed to  each  packer  in  proper  turn.  Of  course  the 
most  important  feature  of  a successful  packing  crew  is  a 
perfect  system.  A complete  system  cannot  be  brought 
about  by  proper  fixtures  alone.  In  fact  some  very  incon- 
venient packing  sheds  have,  with  careful  thought  of  the 
foreman,  brought  out  a system  seemingly  impossible  to 
attain. 

Packing  is  the  classification  of  fruits  into  their  proper 
sizes  by  placing  the  fruits  of  the  same  size  solidly  into 
boxes  in  such  a manner  as  to  insure  uniformity  of  appear- 
ance, neatness  and  protection  from  bruising.  The  pur- 
pose of  careful  packing  is  to  make  the  box  of  fruit  at- 
tractive as  possible,  and  thereby  receive  the  highest  pos- 
sible price  for  it. 

There  have  been  a number  of  different  systems  of  pack- 
ing in  boxes  followed  on  the  Pacific  coast  for  a number 
of  years,  and  this  was  brought  about  in  an  endeavor  to 
adapt  the  size  and  shape  of  the  fruit  to  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  box  used  in  that  particular  locality  from  which 
the  different  systems  originated.  After  a number  of 


Science  of  Grading  and  PacJcing  Apples  91 

years’  experiment  nearly  all  of  the  sections  found  it  im- 
possible to  suit  the  size  and  shape  of  the  fruit  to  the 
box,  so  have  rearranged  their  ideas  and  are  now  suiting 
the  size  and  shape  of  the  box  to  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
fruit,  and  have  reduced  the  systems  practically  to  one,  and 
in  such  a way  that  every  size  or  shape  of  apple  grown 
may  be  neatly  and  solidly  packed  by  the  use  of  two  boxes, 
i.  e.,  the  Northwest  Standard,  (IOV2XIIV2X  18  inside 
measurement,  containing  2,176  cubic  inches,  without 
bulge)  and  the  Northwest  Special  (10x11x20,  inside  meas- 
urement, containing  2,200  cubic  inches,  without  bulge). 

At  this  point  I wish  to  warn  the  purchaser  of  boxes 
against  improperly  made  boxes,  for  there  is  nothing  so 
distasteful  to  the  trade  as  a poorly  manufactured  box. 
Do  not  buy  apple  boxes  with  heads  less  than  three-fourths 
inch  in  thickness.  Do  not  buy  boxes  with  sides  less  than 
three-eighths  inch  in  thickness.  Do  not  buy  boxes  with 
top  and  bottom  board  thicker  than  one-fourth  inch,  for 
these  must  be  thin  and  springy.  Do  not  buy  boxes  unless 
the  top  consists  of  two  pieces  and  the  bottom  of  two  pieces, 
with  two  cleats  each  for  top  and  bottom.  Do  not  use 
sides  made  of  two  pieces,  even  though  tongued  and 
grooved,  for  they  are  much  weaker  than  single-piece 
material  of  the  same  thickness,  and  when  a box  is  tightly 
packed  will  bulge,  and  as  apple  boxes  should  always  be 
handled  on  the  sides,  when  so  handled  will  undoubtedly 
damage  the  fruit.  This  is  also  the  reason  for  insisting  on 
full  three-eighths-inch  thickness  in  these  pieces. 

Returning  to  topic  just  left,  both  these  boxes.  North- 
west Standard  and  the  Northwest  Special,  should,  when 
packed,  have  a swell  in  the  center  of  the  box  on  both  top 
and  bottom  of  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  on  each 
side.  The  manner  of  bringing  this  about  will  be  dealt 
with  later  in  this  article,  and  thereby  adds  to  the  cubic 
contents  of  the  box. 

The  size  of  the  apple  is  invariably  determined  by  the 
diameter  of  the  apple  from  cheek  to  cheek  at  the  widest 
point,  never  from  stem  to  blossom,  hence  the  reason  why 
an  apple  should  never  be  placed  stem  or  blossom-end 
toward  the  sides  of  the  box.  Hardly  an  apple  is  absolutely 


92  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

circular  in  shape  at  its  greatest  cheek  circumference,  and 
it  is  here  that  the  packer  may  take  advantage  of  this 
irregularity  in  packing  Ben  Davis  apples,  one  of  the  most 
difficult  of  apples  to  pack,  for  the  reason  that  they  are 
about  the  same  distance  from  stem  to  blossom  as  from 
cheek  to  cheek,  and  will  not,  when  turned,  have  brought 
about  the  results  usually  attained  by  turning  in  this 
manner.  However,  as  before  stated,  if  the  packer  will 
carefully  save  for  the  end  of  the  boxes  those  even  in  a 
slight  degree  irregular  and  place  at  the  ends  so  as  to 
keep  the  apples  lowest  where  they  will  not  prove  too 
high,  and  by  the  use  of  the  more  nearly  circular  ones 
through  the  center,  a beautiful  crown  may  be  brought 
about. 

The  diagonal  system  as  used  in  the  Northwest  Stan- 
dard and  Northwest  Special  boxes  is  made  up  of  the  fol- 
lowing sizes:  41,  48,  56,  64,  72,  80,  88,  96,  104,  112,  120, 
128,  144,  138,  150,  165,  175,  190,  200  and  225. 

The  sizes  41,  48,  56  and  64  are  largely  used  for  exhi- 
bition purposes,  although  a few  boxes  of  these  sizes  are 
packed  of  certain  large  growing  varieties.  You  will  notice 
that  most  of  the  packs  are  what  are  known  as  the  two-two. 
In  packing  any  one  of  these,  start  by  placing  one  apple  in 
the  lower  left  hand  corner  and  the  other  in  the  center  of 
the  space  left  from  the  cheek  of  the  apple  placed  in  the 
corner  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  box.  This  will  leave  a 
space  on  either  side  of  the  apple  last  placed  of  equal 
width.  Settle  firmly  back  into  the  spaces  then  left  two 
more  apples  in  exactly  the  same  relative  position  on  the 
other  side  of  the  box.  Continue  this  until  the  opposite 
end  of  the  box  is  reached,  where  there  will  be  a space 
which,  by  a firm  pressure  downward  and  toward  the 
packer,  will  enlarge  the  space  sufficiently  to  permit  of 
the  last  two  apples  being  fitted  snugly  into  place  and  at 
the  same  time  take  all  of  the  extra  slack  out  of  the  layer. 
Begin  the  second  layer  by  placing  the  first  two  apples 
into  the  two  little  pockets  formed  by  the  spaces  and  the 
first  four  apples  in  the  first  layer,  and  continue  to  the 
end  of  the  box  as  in  the  first  layer,  ending  up  with  last 
two  apples  in  the  pockets  similar  to  those  at  the  begin- 


Manual  of  Horticulture,  Tdal 
Courtesy  of  “Better  Fruit.” 


PT.ATF  XT. 


Figure  4 — 80  Apples 
Northwest  Standard  Box 


Figure  5 — 96  Apples 
Northwest  Standard  Box 


Manual  of  Horticulture,  Idali 
Courtesy  of  “Better  Fruit.” 


PBATE  XII. 


Northwest  Standard  B :)X 


Fig-ure  3 — 112  Apples 
Northwest  Special  Box 


Northwest  Standard  Box 


yqoQ 

QOOO 

yooo 

JOOO 

oooo 

QOOO 


oooo 

oooo 


Figure  5 — 128  Apples 
Northwest  Special  Box 


PLATE 


JNLinual  of  Horticultur(»,  Idaho. 
Courtesy  of  “Better  Fruit.” 


88ffl 

880 


Figure  1 — 128  Apples 
Northwest  Special  Box 


Figure  2 — 138  Apples 
Northwest  Standard  Box 


Figure  4 — 165  Apples 
Northwest  Standard  Box 


Science  of  Grading  and  Packing  Apples  93 

ning  of  the  second  layer.  Continue  to  build  up  the  third 
and  fourth  layers  in  the  same  way  as  the  first  and  sec- 
ond, always  placing  the  apple  in  the  pockets  formed  and 
never  directly  over  the  cheek  of  the  apple  below  (except, 
of  course,  where  necessary  in  the  straight  four-tier  pack, 
which  is  as  little  used  as  possible,  as  it  is  very  likely  to 
bruise  the  fruit  and  create  a blemish). 

Oftentimes,  in  order  to  keep  the  two-two  pack  from 
coming  too  high  at  the  ends  of  the  box  on  sizes  ranging 
from  41  to  72,  inclusive,  particularly  on  the  larger  of 
these  sizes,  it  is  necessary,  because  of  the  length  of  the 
apple,  to  turn  all  the  layers  of  the  box  so  that  the  apples 
are  either  stem  or  blossom  toward  the  top  or  bottom. 
Where  apples  are  like  the  Wagener,  or  some  of  the  other 
flat  varieties,  it  sometimes  becomes  necessary  to  turn  a 
row  or  two  at  one  end  of  each  layer  in  order  not  only  to 
lower  the  ends  but  to  fill  up  in  length  the  space  yet  left, 
alternating  so  that  the  rows  turned  with  ti^e  stem  or 
blossom  toward  the  top  or  bottom  of  the  box  will  be  on 
layers  Nos.  1 and  3,  on  the  end  of  the  layer  farthest  from 
the  packer,  and  Nos.  2 and  4 on  the  end  nearest  the 
packer.  The  reason  for  turning  in  this  way  is  that,  un- 
til one  layer  is  almost  completed,  it  is  hardly  possible  to 
know  how  many  rows  must  be  turned  in  each  layer.  This 
can  be  determined  as  the  end  of  the  first  layer  is  reached, 
and  in  the  same  manner  turning  in  each  succeeding  layer 
as  above  stated,  first  at  one  end  and  then  the  other.  The 
reason  for  alternating  the  turnings  of  apples  on  each 
layer  is  that,  should  the  nearest  rows  on  each  layer  ana 
the  farthest  be  turned  and  the  rest  on  edge,  it  woufd 
make  the  ends  too  low,  and  the  change  from  the  turned 
apples  to  those  cheeked  abrupt  and  unsightly,  besides  al- 
lowing the  cover  to  rest  only  against  the  cheeked  apples, 
and  allow  an  opportunity  for  the  flat  ones  to  become 
loose  in  the  box.  No  definite  rule  can  be  given  for  turn- 
ing of  apples  in  this  way  other  than  may  be  determined 
by  trial  of  each  variety.  Should  more  than  two  rows  be 
required  to  be  turned  it  would  either  indicate  that  the 
packer  was  not  making  the  rows  fit  snugly  across  the 
box  or  that  the  variety  was  decidedly  flat  and  should  be 


94  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

packed  entirely  on  edge.  This,  of  course,  does  not  apply 
to  cases  where  all  the  apples  are  turned  flat.  Never 
turn  an  apple  stem  or  blossom  directly  toward  the  side 
of  the  box.  Often  apples  are  partially  turned  in  order 
to  form  pockets  for  the  next  ones,  but  this  is  not  directly 
to  the  side  and  is  permissible.  Never  pack  apples  on 
cheek  at  the  end  rows  of  the  layer  and  flat  in  the  middle  of 
the  layer.  This  will  cause  the  ends  to  be  high  and  the  centers 
low.  Ordinarily  growers  endeavor  to  find  proper  shapes  of 
apples  to  do  away  with  turning  flat  in  order  to  make 
a uniform  display  of  the  cheeks.  But  commercially  this 
is  unnecessary,  as  the  apples  are  entirely  wrapped,  and 
when  inspected  by  prospective  purchasers  are  usually  tak- 
en from  the  sides  of  the  box  where  all  layers  may  be 
reached,  and  only  a single  apple  at  a time  inspected  and 
replaced.  In  this  way  no  lack  of  uniformity  of  position 
is  displayed.  The  straight  four-tier  packs,  96,  112,  128 
and  144,  are  to  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible  for  reas- 
ons as  before  mentioned.  However,  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  pack  a crop  of  any  size  without  using  these  packs. 
When  they  must  be  used  be  very  careful  to  follow  the 
outline  just  given  as  to  turning  the  apples  flat  and  never 
allow  the  four  apples  in  each  row  to  be  loose  from  side  to 
side  of  the  box.  This  does  not  mean  that  they  should  be 
forced  in  so  tight  as  to  bulge  the  sides,  but  just  tight 
enough  that  there  will  not  be  a space  the  thickness  of  a 
sheet  of  paper  between  them.  I wish  to  state  right  here 
that  the  writer  has  had  the  teaching  of  many  beginners  in 
packing  and  has  found  beginners  to  have  more  trouble  re- 
sulting from  this  one  thing  than  from  all  others  combined. 
Make  the  apples  fit  snugly  across  the  box.  The  next 
greatest  fault  is  in  keeping  the  size  of  the  apples  the  same 
in  each  box.  Mr.  Packer,  if  you  do  not  have  the  size  of  the 
apple  on  the  table  that  you  are  packing  in  the  box  either 
wait  for  more  of  the  proper  size  or  start  the  size  you 
have  on  the  table  in  another  box.  You  will  no  doubt  have 
trouble  sizing  them  at  first,  but  after  a couple  of  weeks’ 
steady  and  conscientious  sizing  you  will  find  you  feel  almost 
like  a veteran  at  it  and  will  wonder  why  it  was  ever  hard. 

Among  other  points  for  the  beginner  or  the  improperly 


Science  of  Grading  and  Packing  Apples  95 

taught  to  remember  is  never  to  load  the  packing  table  with 
several  boxes  of  apples  at  the  same  time.  The  more  apples 
and  the  more  sizes  from  which  to  choose  the  apple  needed 
adds  to  the  difficulty  of  choice,  and  this  ordinarily  will 
hold  good  for  the  packer  of  long  experience,  for  you  will 
very  often  find  him  rolling  over  a heap  of  apples  trying  to 
find  the  ones  wanted  when  he  has,  right  on  the  top  before 
him,  just  the  one  wanted.  Rolling  and  handling  in  this 
manner  is  injurious  to  the  fruit. 

When  the  larger  sizes  have  been  packed,  and  it  becomes 
necessary  to  pack  those  commonly  known  as  the  four  and  a 
half  tier,  the  pack  is  started  with  three  apples  across  the 
end  of  the  box,  one  in  each  of  the  corners  nearest  the 
packer  and  one  in  the  middle.  Then  place  an  apple  in  each 
of  the  two  pockets  thus  formed  and  then  three  in  the 
pockets  next  formed  until  the  end  of  the  layer  is  finished. 
This  layer  may  end  three  across  or  two  across,  as  the  case 
may  be,  determined  by  the  size  of  the  apple  used.  How^ 
ever,  the  next  layer  will  start  with  two  apples  placed  in  the 
pockets  formed  by  the  first  five  apples  and  space.  Continue 
this  until  the  box  is  completed.  It  is  found  on  most  varie- 
ties that  138  and  150  are  best  packed  flat  through  the  en- 
tire box,  always  as  in  the  large  sizes  of  the  two-two,  using 
those  shortest  for  the  rows  next  to  the  end  of  the  box  and 
the  longer  through  the  centers.  The  165  and  175  usually 
pack  with  part  of  the  rows  flat  toward  the  ends  and  centers 
on  edge.  These  packs  are  all  known  as  the  three-two. 

The  200  and  225  are  the  straight  pack  of  five-tier,  and 
the  same  general  plan  will  apply  as  is  used  in  the  112  and 
128  where  packed  a straight  four-tier  pack. 

You  will  note  by  the  following  summary  in  which 
sizes  are  given  and  the  boxes  in  which  they  are  to  be 
packed,  also  classified  in  tiers,  that  the  purchaser  would, 
upon  reading  the  number  of  apples  marked  upon  the  box, 
immediately  know  the  tier,  but  should  the  tier  only  be 
marked  he  would  in  each  case  have  four  guesses  coming. 
The  tier  of  boxes  is  entirely  unnecessary,  except  possibly 
where  the  dealer  might  wish  to  cover  up  the  fact  that  a 
three  and  a half  tier  was  a larger  apple  than  the  purchaser 
had  desired,  or  where  a four  and  a half  tier  may  be  smaller 


96  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

than  supposed.  This  practice  can  only  hurt  the  grower  in 
the  long  run,  and  my  advice  is  to  use  the  number  of  apples 
in  the  box  rather  than  the  tier. 

Northwest  Standard  Box — 3-tier,  41,  48,  56,  64;  31/2 
tier,  72,  80,  88,  96;  4-tier,  112;  41/2-tier,  138,  150,  165; 
5-tier,  175,  190,  200,  225.  Northwest  Special  Box — 4-tier, 
104,  112,  120,  128;  41/2-tier,  144. 

Should  paper  for  lining,  layer  boards  and  wrapping  be 
used  care  should  be  taken  to  have  all  as  neat  as  possible. 
First  line  your  box  by  taking  two  sheets  of  lining  paper  in 
one  hand  and  holding  at  the  ends  with  both,  then  place  the 
left  hand  into  the  box  in  such  manner  as  to  let  the  end  of 
the  paper  extend  over  the  crack  in  the  center  of  the  box 
about  one  and  one-half  inches;  then  carefully  crease  in  the 
bottom  crack  at  the  bottom  of  the  side;  then  crease  down 
over  the  top  of  the  side  board.  Then  remove  one  of  the 
sheets,  and  by  fitting  the  crease  made  by  the  top  of  the 
one  side  board  to  the  top  of  the  other  side  board  you  will 
have  a neatly  creased  paper  with  exactly  the  same  lap  on 
top  and  bottom.  Then  put  in  a layer  board  and  commence 
with  packing.  In  taking  the  wrapping  paper  use  a rubber 
finger  stole,  which  may  be  secured  at  any  drug  store,  hold 
the  palm  of  the  hand  downward  and  picking  up  the  sheet 
of  paper  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  but  not  turning 
the  hand  over,  as  seems  most  natural,  hold  in  the  same 
position  as  at  the  time  of  taking  the  paper  and  then  place 
the  fruit  held  in  the  other  hand  into  the  paper  against  the 
palm  of  the  other,  then  the  same  hand  to  smooth  the  paper 
to  fit  the  apple,  giving  a little  twist  to  hold  the  apple  in 
place.  Then  place  the  apple  in  the  box  with  iTie  ragged 
ends  upward  for  two  layers  and  downward  for  the  re- 
maining layers. 

OFFSET  SYSTEM,  INCLUDING  THE  SQUARE  PACK. 

The  writer  here  wishes  to  repeat  one  paragraph  of  the 
foregoing  article,  namely,  the  definition  of  packing  : 
‘Tacking  is  the  classification  of  fruit  in  the  proper  sizes 
by  placing  fruit  of  the  same  size  solidly  into  boxes  in  such 
a manner  as  to  insure  uniformity  of  appearance,  neatness 


Manujil  of  Horticultiire,  Idaho. 


PI.ATIO  XIV. 


Figure  2 — Side  view  of  box  after  nailing,  showing  Figure  1 — Manner  of  starting  the  three  and  one-half  tier 

I^roper  bulge  in  top  and  l)ottoin.  l)aek.  Paper  hod  attached  to  side  of  l)ox. 


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l‘I.ATI<]  XV. 


!AT;mu;,il  of  Horticultiu'o,  Idaho. 


Figure  1 — Nailing  press,  liest  type. 


Manual  of  1 lort  icul (uro.  Idalio. 


PLAT1<]  XVI. 


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Manner  of  packing’  lioxes  in 


Science  of  Grading  and  Packing  Apples  97 

and  protection  from  bruising.  The  purpose  of  careful 
packing  is  to  make  the  box  of  fruit  as  attractive  as  pos- 
sible to  the  purchaser  and  obtain  thereby  for  it  the  highest 
possible  price.” 

Generally  speaking,  the  diagonal  system  is  considered 
more  acceptable  to  the  trade  than  the  offset  system.  How- 
ever, there  are  several  advantages  to  the  grower  who  is  a 
beginner  in  the  business  and  wishes  to  get  out  the  best 
possible  pack  with  packers  who  are  not  experienced.  With 
the  diagonal  system  it  is  much  easier  to  vary  the  size  of  the 
fruit  used  in  each  box  from  the  bottom  and  center  layers 
without  materially  spoiling  the  appearance  on  top.  The 
inexperienced  grower  or  foreman  would,  therefore,  be  led 
to  believe  from  the  surface  appearance  that  the  under 
layers  had  been  packed  as  they  should  have  been.  The 
poor  work  would,  however,  be  undoubtedly  discovered  on 
opening  the  box  at  its  final  destination  and  complaint  made 
by  the  parties  inspecting  it.  With  the  offset  system  a 
single  apple  of  improper  size  will  bring  about  a condition 
through  the  general  pack  and  on  the  surface  layer  that 
cannot  possibly  be  covered  up.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
both  systems  are  properly  used  the  diagonal  is  more  to  be 
desired  for  the  reason  that  fewer  of  the  apples  come  in 
sizes  known  as  straight  packs,  i.  e.,  45,  54,  63,  112,  128, 
144.  In  the  offset  packs  the  spaces  show  on  the  sides  of 
the  box,  where  they  have  a disagreeable  effect  upon  the 
eye  of  the  purchaser. 

The  offset  system  used  in  the  Northwest  Standard  box 
(101/2x11%x18  inches  inside  measurement,)  and  the 
Northwest  Special  box  (10x11x20  inches,  inside  measure- 
ment), is  made  up  of  the  following  sizes:  41,  45,  54,  63, 
72,  84,  96,  112,  128,  144,  160,  180,  200,  225.  The  sizes 
41,  45,  54  and  63  are  largely  used  for  exhibition  purposes, 
although  a few  boxes  of  these  sizes  are  required  to  be 
packed  for  the  larger  growing  varieties.  In  packing  the 
size  41  start  by  placing  the  first  two  apples  in  the  bottom 
corners  of  the  end  nearest  the  packer,  placing  a single 
apple  in  the  crotch  or  pocket  left  between  the  two  before 
placed.  Now  place  an  apple  in  each  of  the  two  crotches 
formed  by  the  apple  last  placed  and  the  sides  of  the  box. 


98  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

and  so  continue  until  the  last  two  apples  have  been  firmly 
wedged  against  the  end  of  the  box  away  from  the  packer. 
Start  the  second  layer  by  placing  an  apple  in  the  pocket 
formed  by  the  three  first  apples  in  the  first  layer  at  the 
end  of  the  box  nearest  the  packer  and  then  follow  with 
two  apples,  one  in  each  of  the  center  pockets  formed  by 
the  two  apples  of  the  first  layer,  the  one  just  placed  in  the 
second  layer  and  the  sides  of  the  the  box.  Continue  this  lay- 
er, ending  with  a single  apple  at  the  end  of  the  box  farthest 
from  the  packer  in  the  same  relative  position  as  that  of  the 
first  apple  in  the  second  layer  of  the  box.  The  last  layer  will 
begin  and  end  with  two  apples  at  each  end  and  will  really 
mean  an  apple  in  each  of  the  four  upper  corners  of  the  box. 
The  41  size  of  pack  will  always  come  on  edge  or  cheek. 

Size  45  in  the  standard,  64  and  63  in  the  special  are 
considered  among  the  straight  packs  and  consists  of  three 
layers  deep,  three  apples  wide  and  vary  nine  apples  each  in 
contents.  Occasionally  one  row  of  apples  at  end  of  each  of 
the  two  layers  in  the  45  and  54  sizes  require  to  be  turned 
flat  in  order  to  keep  the  apples  from  being  too  high  at  the 
end  and  sufficently  snug  in  length.  Further  explanation  of 
these  packs  is  surely  unnecessary. 

Sizes  72  and  84  are  the  sizes  in  this  system  of  packing 
from  which  the  name  “oifseC'  was  taken.  Start  the  first 
layer  of  these  two  sizes  with  three  apples  of  the  same  size 
firmly  together,  cheek  to  cheek,  with  the  stem  or  blossom 
toward  the  head  of  the  box,  with  the  first  of  the  three  in 
this  row  firmly  against  the  left  hand  side  of  the  box.  Each 
of  the  other  apples  in  the  row  directly  against  the  cheek 
of  the  one  next  in  the  same  row,  leaving  all  the  space  in  the 
same  row  between  the  last  of  these  apples  and  the  right 
hand  side  of  the  box;  in  the  pocket  thus  formed  place  the 
first  apple  of  the  three  constituting  the  second  row,  leav- 
ing the  alternate  space  on  the  left  hand  side  of  the  box. 
Continue  each  of  the  rows  in  the  same  manner,  alternating 
the  space  first  on  the  right  hand  side  and  then  on  the  left 
hand  side  until  the  last  row  is  forced  into  this  relative 
position,  sufficiently  tight  to  key  the  whole  layer.  Start 
the  second  layer  by  placing  the  first  apple  of  the  first 
row  in  the  pocket  formed  by  the  space  in  the  first  row  of 
the  layer.  Place  the  next  two  apples  of  the  first  row  of 


Manual  of  Horticulture,  Idaho. 


PLATE  XVII. 


Science  of  Grading  and  Packing  Apples  99 

the  second  layer  cheek  to  cheek  against  each  of  the  others, 
leaving  a space  on  the  left  hand  side  of  the  box,  alternating 
each  space  and  row  from  this  first  space  and  row  in  the 
second  layer  until  the  second  layer  is  completed.  Con- 
tinue each  of  the  two  following  layers  in  the  same  manner 
until  the  pack  is  finished.  In  no  case,  in  an  offset  size, 
lay  an  apple  directly  over  another;  always  place  the  apples 
so  that  they  will  come  over  the  pockets  or  semi-pockets 
which  are  formed  by  two  or  three  apples,  and  possibly  one 
side  of  the  box. 

The  72  size  nearly  always  packs  best  for  length  and 
height  flat,  unless  the  apple  is  very  flat,  when  it  will  more 
than  likely  pack  as  an  84,  all  on  edge  or  cheek.  The  84 
usually  packs  on  edge,  except  with  occasional  one  or  two 
rows  on  one  end  of  each  layer,  which  may  require  to  be 
turned  to  make  length  in  the  layer  and  proper  height  in 
the  end.  In  turning  these  rows  alternate,  turning  the  last 
one  or  two  rows  in  the  first  and  third  layers  at  the  end 
farthest  from  the  packer,  and  in  the  first  one  or  two 
rows  in  the  second  and  fourth  layers  at  the  end  nearest  to 
the  packer.  The  96  and  144  sizes,  almost  without  excep- 
tion, pack  on  edge  or  cheek,  are  four  apples  wide,  fitting 
the  box  snugly  with  absolutely  no  pocket  or  space  next  to 
the  side  boards  and  none  at  the  end.  It  is  four  layers  deep, 
and  occasionally,  with  very  flat  apples,  the  96  size  is 
packed  as  an  offset  pack  all  on  cheek. 

Sizes  160  and  180  are  offset  packs  and  are  packed  in  the 
pretty  thoroughly  discussed  in  the  writer’s  former  article, 
and  on  referring  to  it  a full  description  may  be  had. 
Sizes  160  and  180  are  offset  packs  and  are  packed  in  the 
same  manner  as  72  and  84,  except  that  there  are  four 
apples  to  each  row  and  five  layers  to  the  box.  Sizes  200 
and  225  are  straight  packs,  as  112,  128,  144,  and  the 
same  general  plan  is  followed  in  their  packing.  Sizes  200 
and  225  are  five  apples  to  each  row  and  five  layers  deep. 

The  same  general  rules  are  given  in  the  description  of 
the  diagonal  pack  in  the  article  last  season  and  should  be 
studied,  together  with  the  diagrams  and  descriptions  herein 
given.  Sizes  41,  45,  72,  84,  96,  112,  160,  180,  200  and  225 
are  packed  in  Northwest  Standard  boxes;  sizes  54,  63, 
128  and  144  are  packed  in  Northwest  special  boxes. 


r^laiiLiul  of  Horticulture,  iclulio. 


PLATH  XVIII. 


COMICE  PEAK 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


PRINCIPAL  INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS 
IN  IDAHO. 

COMPILED  BY  J.  U.  MCPHERSON. 

All  insects  have  in  their  natural  habitat  enemies  which 
prey  upon  them  and  thereby  control,  to  a great  extent,  the 
increase  and  damage  done  by  them.  When  man,  by 
changing  the  natural  conditions,  disturbs  the  equilibrium 
of  nature,  many  kinds  of  insects  increase  rapidly  and  prey 
upon  the  cultivated  crops  and  trees,  thereby  rendering 
necessary  artificial  means  of  control.  As  with  other  lines 
of  agriculture,  the  horticulturist,  in  order  to  achieve  suc- 
cess, finds  that  he  must  wage  a constant  warfare  upon 
insect  pests. 

The  insects  injurious  to  fruits  in  Idaho  are  numerous. 
The  fact  that  we  have  been  bringing  into  Idaho  numbers  of 
fruit  trees,  vines  and  plants  from  different  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  foreign  countries,  well  explains  why  we 
have  so  many  injurious  insect  pests  to  contend  with.  For 
many  years  great  quantities  of  nursery  stock  of  every 
description  were  brought  within  our  borders  without  in- 
spection of  any  kind,  without  a warning  hand  to  stay, 
without  any  measure  of  relief  for  damage  already  done, 
and  in  many  cases  without  a semblance  of  honesty  on  the 
part  of  the  dealer  with  regard  to  the  stock  being  free 
from  these  most  damaging  and  pernicious  insect  pests. 
With  almost  a mania  for  fruit  and  tree  planting,  the  very 
ones  who  sought  to  build  up  and  advance  the  cause  of 
horticulture  in  our  state,  unfortunately  brought  the  pests 
here. 

The  two  insects  which  cause  the  greatest  damage  to  the 
fruit  crops  of  the  state  are  the  San  Jose  scale  and  codling 
moth.  Other  pests  of  less  importance  are  the  large  family 
of  aphides,  several  kinds  of  scale,  peach  and  apple  borer, 
pear  and  cherry  slug,  red  spider,  pear  blister  mite,  etc. 
Following  will  be  found  a brief  description  of  many  of 


102  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

these  pests  with  their  life  history,  together  with  the 
remedies  for  their  control. 

SAN  JOSE  SCALE. 

(Aspidiotus  perniciousus) , 

Perhaps  no  other  fruit  insect  pest  has  been  so  widely 
discussed  as  the  San  Jose  scale,  and  it  has  undoubtedly 
been  the  cause  of  more  legislation,  both  in  this  country 
and  abroad,  than  any  other  insect  pest  known.  In  fact, 
as  a result  of  the  importation  of  this  scale,  insects  have 
assumed  international  importance  and  occupy  a prominent 
place  in  the  regulation  of  commerce;  and  there  is  much 
legitimate  basis  for  this  interest  and  publicity. 

Had  it  not  been  for  the  introduction  of  this  trouble- 
some pest  it  is  doubtful  if  Idaho,  up  to  the  present  time, 
would  have  had  a horticultural  law.  Yet  the  San  Jose 
scale  is  no  longer  feared  in  Idaho,  as  it  has  been  definitely 
settled  that  spraying  once  a year  with  lime  and  sulphur 
solution,  if  properly  done,  will  keep  the  infested  plants 
practically  free  from  scale. 

Other  results  have  followed  the  spread  of  the  San  Jose 
scale.  In  fighting  this  insect  the  orchardist  has  made 
himself  familiar,  not  only  with  the  San  Jose  scale,  but  has 
absorbed  much  useful  information  along  the  line  of  insect 
control  and  of  modern  methods  of  taking  care  of  the 
orchard. 

' The  injury  done  by  the  San  Jose  scale  is  the  absorption 
of  the  juices  of  the  tree  or  plant,  the  scale  insect  in  its 
relation  to  its  food  plant  being  a mere  pumping  machine 
which  is  continually  extracting  the  sap  from  its  host. 
For  this  purpose  it  inserts  its  long,  slender  beak  or  pro- 
boscis deeply  into  whatever  portion  of  the  plant  it  may  be 
resting  upon — bark,  leaf  or  fruit.  While  the  amount  of 
sap  extracted  by  a single  insect  is  very  small,  when  mul- 
tiplied by  millions  it  greatly  depletes  the  juices  of  the 
plant,  and  will,  in  a few  years  at  most,  cause  the  ultimate 
death  of  the  tree  or  plant. 

The  insect  winters  in  the  larval  state,  usually  about  half 
grown,  both  sexes  being  found.  Probably  in  the  fore  part 


Manual  of  Horticulture.  Idalio. 


PLATE  XIX. 


San  Jose  Scale. — (Aspidiotus  perniciosns).  Infected  fruit  and  branch 
1 and  enlarged  scales  [Howard].  From  Bulletin  No.  34,  New  Series,  by  Na- 

tlian  Banks,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of  Entomology. 


I 


‘jCfO/uT- 

^ Of  THE, 

WNlvERSrry  or  (tu;;o. 


I' 

s 


J k^-T'V 

~7“[ 


Principal  Insects  Injunous  to  Fruits  in  Idaho  103 

of  June  (depending  upon  weather  conditions)  the  females 
become  fully  developed,  and  instead  of  producing  eggs, 
begin  to  bring  forth  living  young.  That  is  to  say  the 
species  is  vivaparous.  While  very  minute,  the  young  are 
not  yet  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and,  by  sharp  inspection, 
during  the  breeding  season  may  be  seen  running  about  on 
the  leaves,  twigs  and  fruit.  In  color  they  are  usually 
bright  lemon-yellow.  They  have  six  well  developed  legs, 
also  antennae  and  eyes,  and  are  highly  organized  in  com- 
parison to  the  degraded  condition  soon  to  be  assumed. 
After  finding  a suitable  situation  (often  within  a few 
minutes  of  the  time  of  their  emergence  from  beneath  the 
old  scale,  though  sometimes  not  for  a day  or  two)  they 
settle  down,  thrust  their  long,  slender,  hair-like  beaks  into 
the  plant,  and  immediately  begin  growth.  The  first 
evidence  of  this  growth  is  the  secretion  of  waxy  filaments 
from  the  upper  surface  of  the  body,  which  mat  down  and 
form  the  beginning  of  the  scale  covering.  The  waxy 
secretion  continues  during  the  life  of  the  insect,  and  the 
scale  is  thus  enlarged  as  the  insect  increases  in  size.  The 
male,  after  molting,  becomes  winged,  and  though  very 
frail  in  form,  has  the  power  to  fly  from  tree  to  tree,  and 
with  a favorable  wind  may  be  carried  a considerable  dis- 
tance. The  females  undergo  two  molts,  and  the  skins 
thrown  off  in  these  molts  attach  to  the  scale  and  form  a 
definite  part  of  it,  being  cemented  closely  to  it  with  the 
wax.  The  female  insect,  after  the  second  molt,  soon 
reaches  full  size,  and  when  fertilized  by  the  male  begins 
to  develop  her  numerous  progeny  of  young.  The  female 
insect,  having  once  thrust  her  beak  into  the  tissues  of  the 
plant  as  a larva  and  begun  the  secretion  of  a covering 
scale,  never  moves  from  her  position,  and,  in  fact,  if  she 
be  removed  by  force  is  never  able  to  penetrate  the  bark 
again  with  her  sucking  beak,  and  thus  soon  perishes.  The 
opportunity  for  the  local  spread,  therefore,  of  these  insects 
is  limited  absolutely  to  the  first  larval  stage,  differing 
in  this  respect  from  most  sucking  insects,  which  have  the 
power  to  move  and  change  their  position  until  nearly  the 
end  of  their  growing  period.  The  number  of  young  pro- 
duced varies  with  the  season,  a less  number  being  gen- 


104  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

erated  in  unfavorable  than  in  favorable  seasons  of  the 
year.  The  progeny  from  a single  parent  insect  in  a 
year,  on  the  supposition  that  they  should  all  survive, 
would  represent  almost  inconceivable  numbers,  running 
into  billions.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  therefore,  that 
the  plants  become  thoroughly  infested  in  a very  short  time. 

REMEDY  FOR  THE  SAN  JOSE  SCALE. 

The  waxy  covering  of  the  San  Jose  scale  makes  it  nec- 
essary to  use  washes  strong  enough  to  penetrate  the 
scale  and  destroy  the  protected  insect  beneath. 

The  proper  time  to  spray  for  the  scale  is  in  the  dormant 
season,  using  the  lime  and  sulphur  solution  (Formula 
No.  1).  If  the  trees  to  be  sprayed  have  a very  rough  bark, 
this  should  be  scraped  off  in  the  same  manner  as  indicated 
under  the  heading  “Codling  Moth.’'  After  many  years  of 
experimenting  in  nearly  every  state  in  the  Union,  the 
spray  commonly  known  as  the  lime  and  sulphur  spray  is 
conceded  by  all  to  be  the  best,  although  there  seems  to  be 
some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  amount  of  each 
ingredient  necessary  to  get  the  best  results,  and  also  as  to 
the  exact  time  and  manner  of  preparing  the  spray.  But 
the  workers  in  Idaho  have  practically  agreed  that  the 
somewhat  modified  formula  used  according  to  the  direc- 
tions as  given  in  this  bulletin,  will  do  the  work  in  a satis- 
factory manner. 

The  last  few  years  have  brought  into  the  market  ready 
made  solutions  of  lime  and  sulphur,  sold  under  different 
brands,  as  Rex,  Niagara,  etc.  These  mixtures  have  proved 
very  popular,  and  have  practically  superseded  the  use  of 
home-cooked  mixtures.  The  preparation  of  such  sprays 
under  usual  orchard  conditions  was  an  arduous,  disagree- 
able task,  and  the  prepared  mixtures  have  been  welcomed, 
in  spite  of  the  slight  excess  of  cost.  The  only  objection 
to  the  use  of  these  prepared  mixtures  has  been  the 
tendency  on  the  part  of  the  manufacturers  to  recommend 
them  in  too  weak  a solution.  It  has  been  found  by  many 
experiments  conducted  over  a period  of  many  years  that 
it  requires  a strength  of  3 per  cent  of  sulphur  to  kill 


Principal  Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits  in  Idaho  105 

the  scale  under  all  conditions,  and  the  commercial  mixture 
should  not  be  reduced  in  proportions  which  will  reduce  its 
strength  below  this  point. 

OYSTER  SHELL  BARK  SCALE. 

( Mytilaspis  pomorum ) . 

The  oyster  shell  bark  scale  is  a rather  long  insect, 
tapering  toward  the  head  and  resembles  very  much  some 
forms  of  oyster  shells — hence  the  name.  The  oyster 
shell  bark  scale  is  a less  dangerous  insect  pest  than  the 
San  Jose  scale.  It  does  not  multiply  so  rapidly,  there 
being  but  one  brood  each  year.  They  are  not  born  alive 
as  is  the  San  Jose  scale,  but  develop  through  the  egg 
state.  The  mother  scale  lays  perhaps  fifty  or  sixty  eggs 
late  in  the  fall  under  the  scale  that  has  protected  her 
during  her  life,  and  these  eggs  begin  hatching,  usually 
during  the  fore  part  of  June,  although  weather  conditions 
govern  somewhat  the  time  of  hatching.  The  young 
immediately  insert  their  beaks  and  begin  extracting  the 
sap  of  the  tree. 

REMEDY  FOR  THE  OYSTER  SHELL  SCALE. 

While  this  pest  is  not  nearly  so  dangerous  as  the  San 
Jose  scale,  yet  it  is  harder  to  destroy  on  account  of  its 
breeding  habits.  Lime  and  sulphur  solution  (Remedy 
No.  1)  applied  as  late  as  possible — just  as  the  buds  begin 
to  open — may  kill  a portion  of  the  scale;  but  whale  oil  and 
kerosene  (Remedy  No.  6),  or  whale  oil  and  quassia  chips 
(No.  8)  applied  frequently  while  the  young  are  emerging, 
has  proved  the  most  effective. 

THE  CURTIS  SCALE. 

(Aspidiotus  ostreaeformis) 

This  scale  somewhat  resembles  the  San  Jose  scale  and  is 
viviparous,  or  produces  young  alive.  It  is  somewhat 
rougher  than  the  San  Jose  scale  and  the  nipple-like  center 
is  surrounded  by  a whitish  ring.  This  insect  is  usually 
taken  for  the  San  Jose  scale  and  only  by  close  examination 


106  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

can  they  be  told  apart.  It  does  not  seem  to  multiply  so 
rapidly  as  the  San  Jose  scale  and  is  much  more  susceptible 
to  the  attacks  of  native  enemies. 

This  scale  is  found  in  only  a few  localities  in  the  state. 

REMEDY  FOR  CURTIS  SCALE. 

Apply  lime  and  sulphur  solution  (Remedy  No.  1)  in 
the  dormant  season.  For  summer  spraying  use  whale  oil 
and  kerosene  (No.  6)  or  whale  oil  and  quassia  chips 
(No.  8). 


THE  PUTNAM  SCALE. 

( A spidiotus  ancylus ) . 

This  is  a native  scale  and  is  found  most  frequently  on 
cottonwood.  It  sometimes  attacks  fruit  trees  but  seems  to 
be  held  in  check  by  its  natural  enemies  and  does  but  little 
harm. 


REMEDY  FOR  PUTNAM  SCALE. 

Use  lime  and  sulphur  solution  (Remedy  No.  1)  in  the 
dormant  season. 


ROSE  AND  BERRY  SCALE. 

(Diaspis  Rosae), 

This  scale  is  larger  than  most  other  scales,  and  is  almost 
entirely  white,  which  makes  it  quite  conspicuous  and  very 
easy  to  find.  It  is  confined  mostly  to  roses,  blackberry  and 
currant  bushes,  and  shrubbery. 

REMEDY  FOR  THE  ROSE  AND  BERRY  SCALE. 

Use  lime  and  sulphur  solution  (Remedy  No.  1)  in  the 
dormant  season. 


THE  CODLING  MOTH. 

(Carpocaspa  pomonella  L,) 

The  codling  moth,  or  apple  worm,  is  a familiar  pest  to 
every  grower  or  consumer  of  apples;  and  a wormy  apple, 
the  result  of  its  work,  scarcely  needs  description.  The 


Principal  Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits  in  Idaho  107 

larva,  living  most  of  its  life  within  the  fruit,  throws  out 
through  its  entrance  hole,  which  it  enlarges  from  time  to 
time,  or  through  its  exit  hole  in  the  side  of  the  fruit,  the 
characteristic  mass  of  frass  or  excrement  which  is  the 
sign  of  infestation.  Such  an  apple  is  practically  unsalable. 
At  best  it  brings  a very  small  price,  either  for  consumption 
as  fresh  fruit,  or  for  the  manufacture  of  by-products. 
The  monetary  loss  thus  occasioned  by  this  insect  is 
greater  than  that  due  to  any  other  insect  pest  affecting 
fruits.  It  has  been  shown  by  careful  estimates  in  various 
apple  growing  states  that  this  insect,  when  unmolested, 
may  cause  a loss  of  from  20  to  100  per  cent  of  the  fruit 
which  would  otherwise  be  sound  and  merchantable.  This 
loss  estimated  on  the  lowest  or  20  per  cent  basis  would 
amount  annually  to  many  million  dollars  in  the  United 
States,  and  this  does  not  include  the  expenditures  for 
spraying  trees  with  arsenicals  amounting  to  millions 
more.  Great  as  this  loss  still  is,  it  has  been  very  much 
limited  by  measures  of  control  which  are  becoming  more 
and  more  widely  adopted,  and  many  apple  growers  in 
badly  infested  regions  are  now  saving  every  year  more 
than  85  per  cent  of  fruit  which  would,  without  treatment, 
be  wormy.  : 


DISTRIBUTION. 

The  original  home  of  the  codling  moth  was  probably 
southeastern  Europe,  the  home  of  the  apple,  but  it  has 
followed  closely  upon  the  distribution  of  the  apple  until 
it  is  now  found  in  almost  every  country  in  the  world.  It 
is  spread  principally  by  the  shipping  of  the  infested  fruit. 
The  young  larvse  in  such  fruit  complete  their  development, 
and  leaving  the  fruit,  spin  cocoons  in  nearby  places.  The 
moths  emerge  in  due  course  and  fly  to  the  nearest  tree  to 
deposit  their  eggs.  When  orchards  are  but  little  distances 
apart  the  moths  fly  from  one  orchard  into  another. 

FRUITS  INFESTED. 

The  apple  is  the  natural  food  of  this  insect,  and  sustains 
almost  all  the  loss  occasioned  by  it.  Pears  are  next  in 


108  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

order  of  infestation,  but  if  apples  are  present  in  the  same 
orchard  pears  are  usually  not  badly  infested.  The  codling 
moth  larvae  have  been  found  also  in  the  fruit  of  the 
quince,  prune,  plum,  peach  and  cherry,  but  never  in 
sufficient  numbers  to  cause  any  great  injury. 

LIFE  HISTORY. 

The  apple  grower  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  with 
the  necessity  of  familiarizing  himself  with  the  life  history 
of  the  codling  moth,  so  that  he  will  understand  the  prin- 
ciples of  its  control  which  are  based  on  certain  vulnerable 
points  in  its  life  cycle.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  worst  of  our 
fruit  pests,  causing  annually  an  immense  amount  of  loss, 
although  many  of  our  commercial  orchardists  are  alive 
to  the  situation  and  are  doing  excellent  work,  keeping  up 
to  99%  of  their  crop  of  apples  free  from  worms. 

Hibernation. — The  codling  moth  passes  the  winter  in 
the  larval  stage  in  silken  cocoons,  hiding  in  cracks  and 
holes  in  the  trees,  and  in  houses  where  apples  have  been 
stored.  In  the  spring  these  larvae  change  to  pupae,  and 
the  moths  emerge  about  a month  after  the  apple  tree  ig 
in  blossom. 

The  Moth. — The  full-fledged  codling  moth  is  but  little 
known  among  fruit  growers,  and  other  moths  are  often 
mistaken  for  it.  It  varies  somewhat  in  size,  but  the 
maximum  spread  of  its  wings  is  about  three-fourths  of  an 
inch.  The  front  wings  are  of  a brownish-gray  color  and 
are  crossed  with  lines  of  gray  scales,  giving  them  the 
appearance  of  watered  silk.  At  the  tips  of  the  wings 
there  is  a large  brown  spot,  in  which  are  many  scales  of 
bronze  or  gold.  The  hind  wings  are  grayish-brown  in 
color.  Taken  as  a whole,  the  coloring  of  the  moth  is  such 
that  when  resting  on  old  grayish  bark  it  is  so  like  the 
bark  that  it  is  not  easily  distinguished.  The  moth  lays  her 
eggs  a few  days  after  emergence  from  the  cocoon,  on  the 
leaves  of  apple  or  other  food  plants,  or  on  the  fruit.  The 
eggs  of  the  first  generation  are  usually  laid  on  the  leaves 
surrounding  the  apple  cluster,  while  the  greater  part  of 
those  of  the  second  generation  are  laid  upon  the  fruit. 


Manual  of  Horticulture,  Idaho. 


XX. 


Figure  1 — The  Codling  Moth;  (a),  the  moth  or  adult  insect,  sliglitly 
('ularged;  (b),  the  egg  greatly  enlarged:  (c),  the  full-grown  larvae 
slightly  enlarged;  (d)  the  pupa,  slightly  enlarged;  (e)  the  pupa  in  its 
cocoon  on  the  inner  surface  of  a piece  of  bark,  reduced  about  one- 
half;  (f),  moth  on  bark  and  empty  pupa  skin  from  which  it  emerged, 
about  natural  size.  (Original). 

Codling  Moth. — From  Farmers’  Bulletin  No.  171,  by  permission  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of  Entomology,  by  C.  B.  Simpson. 


Fig.  2. --Woolly  Aphis  (Schizoneura  lanigera.  (a)  aga- 
mic female;  (b)  larva;  (c)  pupa;  (d)  winged  female. 
[Marlatt].  From  Bulletin  No.  34,  New  Series  by 
Banks,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of 
Entomology. 


Principal  Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits  in  Idaho  109 

The  Egg. — The  eggs  are  very  minute,  scarcely  visible 
to  the  naked  eye.  They  are  pearly  white  in  color,  resem- 
bling thin  convex  disks.  Around  the  edge  there  is  a 
coarse  network  of  ridges,  while  toward  the  center  these 
ridges  are  finer.  A red  ring  which  indicates  the  embryo 
or  developing  larva,  appears  in  the  egg  a few  days  after 
it  is  laid  and  may  be  easily  seen  with  a good  magnifying 
glass. 

Through  the  following  methods  our  most  successful 
orchardists  have  succeeded  in  the  fight  against  the  codling 
moth  in  keeping  each  year  from  75  to  99  per  cent  of 
their  fruit  free  from  the  marks  of  the  worm. 

In  fighting  the  codling  moth  it  is  advisable  to  destroy 
all  larvae  before  they  have  time  to  become  moths.  The 
store  rooms  or  other  places  where  apples  have  been  kept 
should  be  gone  over  and  all  the  larvae  destroyed;  rubbish 
and  trash  should  be  removed  from  the  orchard  and 
burned;  all  boxes  and  other  places  where  the  worm  might 
hide  should  be  thoroughly  examined  and  the  worms  killed. 
In  February  or  March  shovel  away  the  earth  around  the 
tree  to  a depth  of  three  or  four  inches;  (this  is  necessary 
as  many  of  the  worms  find  refuge  in  the  bark  and  cracks 
just  under  the  surface  of  the  ground).  Then  take  a 
heavy  piece  of  muslin  or  canvas  and  hem  one  side  over  a 
strong  cord;  tie  this  tightly  around  the  tree  close  to  the 
ground;  scrape  off  all  rough  bark,  clean  out  all  cracks 
where  the  worms  might  be  in  hiding,  clean  out  all  holes, 
smooth  all  cuts  and  broken  places,  fill  all  sharp  angles  or 
holes  with  cement  or  plaster  of  Paris;  gather  up  this 
refuse  and  burn  it.  In  this  way,  if  the  work  is  thoroughly 
done,  the  most  of  the  worms  will  be  destroyed. 

BANDING. 

Banding  the  trees  is  one  of  the  essentials  for  the  con- 
trol of  the  moth,  as  well  as  giving  aid  in  determining 
the  proper  time  to  spray.  About  four  weeks  after  the 
blossoms  fall  put  on  the  bands.  The  band  should  be  of 
somewhat  fuzzy  texture,  double,  and  wide  as  convenient, 
(about  four  inches  will  do).  It  should  be  long  enough  to 


110  state  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

pass  around  the  tree  and  lap  over  two  or  three  inches. 
Drive  a box  nail  into  the  tree,  letting  it  stick  out  about 
one  inch ; cut  the  head  off  the  nail  with  a pair  of  clippers ; 
fasten  one  end  of  the  band  on  the  nail;  pass  it  around 
quite  closely  and  fasten  the  other  end.  After  the  worms 
begin  to  appear  under  the  bands  they  should  be  examined 
and  the  worms  killed  every  ten  days  until  the  fruit  is 
packed.  After  this  allow  the  bands  to  remain  until  all  the 
straggling  worms  have  gone  under  the  bands,  which  is 
usually  some  time  in  December.  If  the  trees  are  very 
large  and  have  limbs  near  the  ground,  it  is  well  to  band 
each  limb  as  well  as  the  trunk. 

SPRAYING. 

Given  an  efficient  spraying  material,  the  question  of 
how  to  spray  and  when  to  spray  becomes  all  important. 
For  years  it  was  thought  best  to  hold  the  nozzle  toward 
the  tree  and  with  a force  of  about  80  pounds  pressure, 
allow  a fog  to  settle  upon  the  tree,  stopping  the  spraying 
as  soon  as  the  tree  began  to  drip.  Among  the  more 
progressive  this  method  has  been  abandoned  for  the  use 
of  a driving  spray  thrown  under  a pressure  of  175  to  200 
pounds,  spraying  (for  the  first  spray  at  least)  from  above, 
from  below  and  from  the  side,  straight  into  the  calyx  cup, 
thoroughly  wetting  the  tree  from  top  to  bottom. 

Experiments  and  close  observations  show  that  the  bulk 
of  eggs  of  the  first  brood  of  codling  moth  and  many  of 
the  eggs  of  the  second  brood  are  laid  upon  the  whorl  of 
leaves  which  surrounds  each  cluster  of  fruit.  When  the 
worm  hatches,  it  immediately  seeks  the  fruit,  generally 
feeding  upon  the  leaf  before  it  reaches  the  fruit.  The 
first  brood  of  worms  as  a rule  enters  the  calyx  after  the 
calyx  has  closed.  In  order  that  the  poison  may  be  in  the 
calyx  ready  for  the  worm  when  it  appears  it  is  necessary 
to  spray  while  the  calyx  is  still  open.  The  calyx  com- 
mences to  close  immediately  after  the  petals  drop,  and 
if  the  weather  is  warm,  closes  very  quickly,  the  time 
varying,  according  to  weather  conditions,  from  five  to  ten  | 
days.  It  can  thus  be  seen  that  with  large  orchards  very  j 


Principal  Insects  Injurions  to  Fruits  in  Idaho  111 

quick  work  must  be  done  with  this  first  spraying,  and  it 
well  behooves  the  grower  to  have  pumps  in  order  and 
material  on  hand,  in  order  that  no  time  may  be  lost. 

To  determine  the  date  of  second  spraying  a few  larvse 
should  be  caged  and  the  date  of  change  to  moth  noted,  and 
spray  applied  about  ten  days  after  the  change  from  pupae 
to  moth,  at  which  time  the  first  worms  would  hatch. 

For  third  spray  the  bands  should  be  watched  and  spray- 
ing done  twenty-five  days  after  the  first  worm  appears 
under  the  band,  to  be  followed  two  weeks  later  with  the 
fourth  spray. 

In  the  last  bulletin  issued  by  this  department  the  use 
of  tried  and  well  known  methods  was  recommended. 
Reference  was  made  to  the  popular  thought  that  one  spray 
would  be  sufficient,  but  our  recommendations  were  to 
spray  at  least  three  times,  and  in  badly  infested  orchards 
to  use  what  may  be  called  supplementary  methods.  As 
the  years  have  gone  by  the  advocates  of  the  one  spray  sys- 
tem have  grown  less  in  number  until  now  it  is  generally 
accepted  that  from  two  to  four  sprays  are  wisest.  To 
those  who  wish  to  try  the  one  spray  only,  we  will  repeat 
what  we  said  in  the  former  bulletin  referred  to  above. 
The  grower  should  spray  thoroughly  at  the  proper  time, 
which  is  when  the  calyx  cups  are  still  open;  then  band 
enough  trees  to  make  a practical  test,  taking  off  bands 
every  ten  days  and  keeping  careful  count  of  the  number 
of  worms  found.  If  the  trees  average  one  first  brood 
worm  under  the  band  of  the  tree,  do  not  neglect  the 
third  and  fourth  sprays.  If  less  than  an  average  of  one 
appears  the  grower  might  be  justified  in  abandoning  the 
later  sprays. 

For  the  experienced  orchardist  in  an  orchard  not  badly 
infested  the  previous  season,  the  use  of  spray  alone  would 
be  sufficient,  but  to  the  inexperienced  grower,  or  where  the 
orchard  was  very  badly  infested  the  preceding  season,  we 
still  unqualifiedly  recommend  the  use  of  bands  and  the 
cleaning  of  the  trees.  There  is  an  additional  precaution 
which  should  be  used  by  all  whenever  thinning  of  the 
fruit  is  done,  that  is,  while  thinning,  to  destroy  the  worm- 
infested  fruit. 


112  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

REMEDY. 

Use  arsenate  of  lead  (Remedy  No.  4),  Paris  green, 
(Remedy  No.  2),  or  white  arsenic  (Remedy  No.  3),  as 
recommended  above. 

THE  PEACH  TWIG  BORER. 

(Anarsia  Lineatella  Zell) 

The  peach  twig  borer  is  apparently  an  Old  World 
species  and  probably  a very  ancient  enemy  of  the  peach, 
doubtless  coming  with  this  fruit  from  western  Asia.  It 
was  described  in  Europe  in  1839,  and  in  this  country  in 
1860.  The  American  species  was  afterward  shown  to  be 
identical  with  the  European  peach  moth.  It  has  been  very 
injurious  at  times  to  peach  trees  in  the  peach  growing 
sections  of  the  east;  on  the  Pacific  slope  its  injuries  have 
taken  a wider  range,  including  damage  to  the  apricot, 
almond,  nectarine,  prune  and  perhaps  other  fruit  trees, 
in  addition  to  the  peach. 

The  injury  occasioned  by  this  insect  is  limited  princi- 
pally to  the  work  of  the  hibernating  larvse  during  the 
latter  part  of  April  and  first  of  May,  when  they  bore  into 
the  shoots  of  new  leaves,  killing  the  growing  terminals 
and  preventing  the  development  of  the  branch,  although 
sometimes  a whorl  of  living  leaves  may  remain  at  the  base. 
Much  of  the  new  growth  of  the  tree  is  often  killed,  in 
many  instances  the  branches  remaining  with  scarcely  a 
bud  or  shoot  which  has  not  been  thus  destroyed.  This 
necessarily  results  in  greatly  checking  the  vigor  and  fruit- 
ing capacity  of  the  tree,  and  causes  an  irregular  and 
knotty  growth. 

The  summer  broods  of  larvse  feed  beneath  the  bark  or 
in  the  fruit  stems,  and  occasionally,  when  nearly  full 
grown,  bore  into  the  fruit;  but  such  damage  is  not  ordinar- 
ily noticed  and  is  slight  as  compared  with  the  injury 
occasioned  by  the  first  hibernating  brood  larvse. 

LIFE  HISTORY  AND  HABITS. 

The  fall  brood  of  larvse  may  be  taken  as  a convenient 
starting  point  in  the  life  history  of  the  peach  twig-borer. 


Manual  of  Horticulture,  Idaho. 


PLATE  XXI. 


e 


Fig-.  1. — ■ Mytilaspis  pomorum.  (a,  b),  females;  (c) 
scale  on  twig;  (d),  male  scale  [Howardl. 

Bulletin  No.  34,  New  Series,  by  Banks,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Division  of  Entomology. 


Fig.  2.- — -Anarisa  lineatella:  (a),  twig  of  peach, 

showing  in  crotch  minute  masses  of  chewed  bark 
above  larva  chambers;  (b),  latter  much  enlarged; 
(c),  a larval  cell,  with  contained  larva;  (d).  dorsal 
view  of  young  larva  more  enlarged  (original). 

Peach  Twig  Borer — From  Fanners’  Bulletin  No.  80, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of  Entom- 
ology. 


Principal  Insects  Injurious  to  Emits  in  Idaho  113 

In  the  fall  they  appear  as  a very  small  larvae,  living  and 
working  in  the  spongy  bark,  chiefly  at  the  crotches  of  the 
branches  of  the  peach,  and  it  is  surmised  that  they  are 
developed  from  eggs  deposited  in  these  situations. 

While  in  their  winter  quarters  the  larvae  are  subject 
to  the  attacks  of  predaceous  mites,  and  many  of  them  are 
destroyed  by  this  means.  They  are  also  occasionally 
parasited  by  a chalcidid  fly. 

Early  in  April  the  larvae  begin  to  abandon  their  hiber- 
nating quarters  and  attack  the  new  leaf  shoots,  but  some 
individuals  have  been  found  in  the  crotches  as  late  as 
April  21.  The  damage  becomes  noticable,  as  a rule,  at 
the  time  the  shoots  are  from  one-half  inch  to  two  inches 
in  length,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  mere  clusters  of 
newly  expanded  leaves. 

It  is  our  observation  that  the  larvae  begin  to  migrate 
only  after  the  new  foliage  has  begun  to  show.  They 
attack  the  new  shoots  at  any  point,  generally,  however, 
from  one-half  inch  to  an  inch  from  the  apex,  either  near 
or  in  the  crotch  formed  by  the  leaf  petiole  and  the  stem. 

When  working  in  the  succulent  new  growth  the  larvae 
bores  rather  rapidly,  sufficiently  so  at  least  to  excavate 
a burrow  two-thirds  of  its  length  in  an  hour.  The  length 
of  time  spent  by  the  hibernating  larvae  in  coming  to  full 
growth  in  the  green  shoots  is  comparatively  short,  not 
exceeding  ten  to  fifteen  days. 

The  larva  on  reaching  full  growth  spins  a scanty  web, 
(in  no  sense  a close  cocoon)  in  the  leaves  and  rubbish 
about  the  trees,  or  in  the  trees  themselves,  in  the  dried 
and  shriveled  leaves  of  the  injured  shoots,  or  it  attaches 
itself  exposed  on  the  twigs  or  bark.  After  thus  securing 
itself  the  larva  immediately  pupates,  becoming  a brown, 
rather  robust  chrysalis.  In  midsummer  these  transforma- 
tions are  very  quickly  accomplished.  A larva  which 
webbed  up  June  29,  pupated  July  1,  and  the  adult 
emerged  July  8. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  find  the  pupse  in  orchards,  as  the 
larvse  hide  in  all  sorts  of  places.  They  conceal  themselves 
in  the  crotches  of  the  branches,  between  dried  leaves,  and 
about  small  peaches  likely  to  drop  off. 


114 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


The  chrysalis  stage  lasts  from  seven  to  ten  days,  and 
the  moths  of  the  first  brood  begin  to  appear  early  in  May 
and  continue  to  emerge  throughout  this  month  and  into 
June. 

The  adult  moth  is  less  than  half  an  inch  in  length, 
expanding  a little  more  than  half  an  inch,  and  is  of  a 
beautiful  dark  gray  color,  with  darker  spots  on  the 
forewings. 

The  newly  deposited  eggs  are  white  in  color  and  irides- 
cent, but  before  hatching  become  distinctly  orange.  They 
measure  about  four-tenths  of  a millimeter  in  length  by 
two-tenths  of  a millimeter  in  breadth,  are  somewhat  ovoid, 
and  are  lightly  attached  lengthwise  to  the  twig  by  a 
glue-like  material. 

The  newly  hatched  larvae  measure  about  one  millimeter 
in  length  and  are  of  a very  pale  yellow  color,  with  the 
head  and  vervical  and  anal  plates  black  and  the  thoracic 
legs  dusky. 

At  the  time  of  the  appearance  of  the  first  brood  of 
moths  during  the  month  of  May,  the  fruit  of  the  peach  is 
of  considerable  size,  especially  by  the  end  of  the  month, 
but  is  green,  hard  and  densely  hairy,  and  is  probably 
rarely  if  ever  chosen  by  the  parent  moths  as  a nidus  for 
eggs. 


REMEDIES  FOR  PEACH  TWIG  BORER. 

It  has  been  observed  that  where  the  lime  and  sulphur 
solution  has  been  used  for  scale  it  has  very  materially  re- 
duced this  pest.  All  other  recommended  methods  of  con- 
trol, such  as  spraying  with  arsenicals  and  cutting  the  in- 
fested twigs,  have  been  found  inadequate.  The  lime  and 
sulphur  spray  applied  in  the  dormant  season  will  not  en- 
tirely eradicate  the  borer,  but  will  reduce  its  numbers  to 
the  minimum,  and  this  method  is  unqualifiedly  recom- 
mended as  the  only  practical  remedy. 

PEACH  TREE  BORER. 

(Sannina  exitiosa). 

The  peach  tree  borer  is  quite  destructive  at  times  on 


Principal  Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits  in  Idaho  115 

young  or  newly  set  trees.  The  eggs  are  deposited  on  the 
tree  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  when  hatched 
the  young  borer  enters  and  burrows  under  the  bark, 
winding  here  and  there,  sometimes  entirely  girdling  the 
tree  and  thereby  causing  its  death.  They  may  also  occur 
on  other  pit  or  stone  fruit  trees.  As  the  insect  increases 
size  it  eats  the  sap  wood  or  tender  portion  of  the  tree 
beneath  the  bark,  causing  a copious  exudation  of  gum 
around  the  base  of  the  tree,  which  is  easily  seen.  It 
sometimes  attacks  the  tree  higher  up  in  a crotch  or  where 
there  may  chance  to  be  a scar  of  any  kind,  but  is  always 
easily  found  by  the  exudation  of  the  gum  from  its  borings. 

REMEDY  FOR  THE  PEACH  TREE  BORER. 

As  a preventive  young  trees  should  be  wrapped  with 
heavy  strong  paper,  letting  the  paper  extend  from  two 
to  three  inches  under  the  surface  of  the  ground  up  to  the 
first  limbs.  The  top  of  the  paper  should  be  tied  tight 
enough  to  keep  the  mother  beetle  from  entering.  Keeping 
the  trees  thoroughly  coated  during  the  summer  with  a very 
strong  mixture  of  lime  and  bluestone  is  also  very  good. 
Frequent  applications  of  the  mixture  should  be  made. 
After  the  borer  has  once  entered  the  tree  the  only  remedy 
is  to  cut  it  out.  If  this  is  done  soon  after  it  enters  the 
tree  may  be  saved. 

THE  FLAT-HEADED  BORER. 

( Chrysobothris  femorata ) . 

The  flat-headed  borer  is  by  far  the  most  common  of  the 
borer  type  of  insect.  The  mother  beetle  lays  the  eggs,  if 
on  a small  or  newly  set  tree,  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground;  but  if  on  an  older  tree,  usually  where  a scar  of 
some  kind  occurs.  This  scar  may  be  well  up  in  the  larger 
branches. 

The  larva  when  young  is  of  a whitish  green  color,  but 
becomes  almost  a clear  white  as  it  advances  in  size  and  age. 
It  eats  its  way  into  the  bark  and  sap  of  the  tree,  making 
irregular  channels  or  chambers  under  the  bark,  often 
girdling  the  young  tree  and  causing  sure  death.  Where 


116  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

the  insect  is  at  work  beneath  it  the  bark  turns  quite  dark, 
and  the  castings  from  the  worm  may  be  seen  at  openings 
in  the  dead  bark,  thus  plainly  indicating  its  workings. 
This  pest  is  sometimes  very  bad  among  the  newly-set 
apple  orchards,  causing  an  immense  amount  of  damage. 
It  is  much  worse  some  seasons  than  others.  It  bores  deep 
into  the  heart  of  young  trees,  and  takes  from  one  to 
three  years,  according  to  the  rapidity  with  which  it 
develops,  to  complete  the  cycle  of  life. 

REMEDY  FOR  THE  FLAT-HEADED  BORER. 

The  flat-headed  borer  is  very  hard  to  combat,  no  remedy 
being  entirely  effective  in  controling  this  pest,  although 
any  of  the  following  will  sometimes  relieve  the  situation 
somewhat  and  a combination  of  the  lime,  sulphur  and 
blue  vitriol  wash  and  protectors  will  reduce  the  damage  to 
a minimum. 

The  lime,  sulphur  and  blue  vitriol  wash  is  made  of 
equal  parts  of  lime,  sulphur  and  blue  vitriol  thoroughly 
cooked  and  used  at  the  consistency  of  a good  whitewash. 
Before  painting  trees  with  this  mixture  the  dirt  at  the 
base  of  the  trees  should  be  removed,  exposing  two  or 
three  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  then  paint 
the  bottom  up  to  the  first  limbs.  This  work  should  be 
done  early  in  May,  as  the  eggs  are  laid  by  the  mother 
beetle  in  the  latter  part  of  May  and  the  larvae  hatched  in 
June,  the  time  varying  according  to  weather  conditions. 
The  object  of  this  wash  is  to  keep  the  mother  beetle  away 
from  the  tree  through  its  offensive  odor.  The  use  of  one 
01  the  various  forms  of  tree  protector  is  also  an  assistance. 
For  this  purpose  paper  is  sometimes  used,  although  the 
usual  protector  is  some  sort  of  wood  veneer.  The  yucca 
palm  is  probably  the  best,  as  it  is  very  porous  and  allows 
some  circulation  of  air,  which  prevents  the  scalding  of  the 
tree.  The  use  of  tarred  paper  should  be  avoided,  as  it  is 
very  heating  and  often  causes  destruction  of  young  trees. 
In  case  of  a combined  use  of  the  wash  and  a protector,  the 
tree  should  not  be  painted  on  the  lower  part.  The  protec- 
tor itself  will  keep  the  beetle  from  that  part  of  the  tree, 


Principal  Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits  in  Idaho  117 


and  the  wash  under  the  upper  part  of  the  protector  will 
repel  the  mother  beetle  from  crawling  inside  the  pro- 
tector. 


THE  PEAR  AND  CHERRY  SLUG. 

( Eriocampa  cerasi ) . 

The  pear  and  cherry  slug  wasp  lays  her  eggs  usually 
in  the  latter  part  of  May  or  the  first  part  of  June,  on  the 
leaves  of  the  pear  and  cherry  tree.  The  larva  when  first 
hatched  is  of  a greenish  color,  gradually  turning  to  a 
shiny  black  as  greater  size  and  age  are  attained.  The 
larva  when  full  grown  is  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
long  and  is  covered  with  a slime  something  like  a snail, 
to  which  dust  and  dirt  will  readily  adhere.  It  feeds 
mostly  on  pear,  cherry  and  quince,  eating  away  the  pulp 
on  the  top  side  of  the  leaf.  It  very  seldom  eats  entirely 
through  the  leaf;  yet  it  causes  the  leaf,  if  badly  eaten,  to 
wither  away  and  dry  up.  In  some  years  these  pests  are 
very  destructive. 

REMEDY  FOR  PEAR  AND  CHERRY  SLUG. 

While  the  pear  and  cherry  slug  is  very  easily  controlled  - 
with  an  application  of  arsenic  (Remedies  Nos.  2 and  3, 
or  No.  4),  it  so  happens  that  with  cherries  it  appears  just 
about  picking  time,  when  it  is  not  desirable  to  spray,  as 
this  would  cover  the  fruit  with  spray  and  injure  its 
appearance  for  market.  The  slug  is  now  found  in  all 
fruit  sections  and  can  be  expected  to  appear  nearly  every 
year,  and  therefore  any  grower  having  cherry  trees  should 
spray  with  an  arsenical  spray  at  least  a month  before 
picking  time,  thus  having  the  poison  ready  for  the  insect 
without  injury  to  the  fruit.  The  pear  and  quince  can  be 
sprayed  at  any  time.  If  only  a few  trees  are  in  the 
orchard,  frequent  applications  of  fine  road  dust,  ashes 
or  air-slaked  lime  are  effective,  as  such  substances  adhere 
to  the  insects  and  dry  them  up. 

i 

APPLE  OR  GREEN  APHIS. 

The  apple  or  what  is  commonly  called  the  green  aphis 


118  State  Board  of  Hordicultural  Inspection 

is  the  most  conspicuous  and  probably  the  most  troublesome 
of  the  aphis  family.  That  they  do  serious  injury  at  times, 
especially  to  young  fruit  trees,  cannot  be  questioned.  The 
egg  is  laid  in  the  late  fall  season  by  the  mother  insect, 
mostly  on  apple  and  pear  trees.  If  on  the  apple,  you  may 
look  for  them  near  the  ends  of  last  season’s  growth.  If 
on  the  pear  tree  you  may  look  for  them  on  somewhat 
larger  limbs  and  in  and  around  the  crotches.  When  first 
laid  they  are  of  a greenish  brown  color,  gradually  turning 
to  a shiny  black.  They  winter  over  in  this  stage  and  the 
eggs  begin  hatching  with  the  early  warm  days  of  spring. 
They  have  been  noted  already  hatched  as  early  as  the 
11th  of  February,  and  the  insect  has  been  known  to  lay 
eggs  as  late  as  the  25th  of  December.  The  insect  soon 
inserts  its  proboscis  and  begins  sucking  the  sap  of  the  tree 
or  plant.  It  is  wingless,  and  usually  remains  so,  but 
grows  rapidly  and  soon  begins  to  produce  living  young.  It 
is  sometimes  called  a “stem-mother”  because  it  is  the 
source  from  which  numerous  generations  issue  during  the 
season.  All  the  young  born  of  this  stem-mother  are.  like 
herself,  without  sex;  that  is,  they  are  neither  males  nor 
sexually  developed  females.  The  rate  at  which  they  are 
born  varies,  but  as  many  as  eight  living  young  have  been 
born  from  a single  specimen  in  twenty-four  hours  and  it 
is  common  to  find  a great  cluster  of  ten  or  twenty  of  the 
young  ones  clustering  around  the  mother  louse.  The  con- 
ditions of  the  weather  have  much  to  do  with  the  increase 
of  this  insect.  Warm,  damp  weather  is  most  favorable 
to  its  rapid  increase,  while  cold,  frosty  weather  in  early 
spring  is  unfavorable  and  sometimes  has  much  to  do  with 
checking  and  reducing  the  sum  total  for  the  season.  Under 
favorable  conditions  the  young  that  were  first  brought 
forth  are  in  turn  ready  to  reproduce  in  six  or  eight  days; 
and  thus  it  will  be  seen  that  many  generations  are  brought 
forth  in  a season.  In  almost  any  generation  after  the 
first,  a portion  of  the  individuals  may  become  winged  and 
fly  to  other  plants  or  trees  and  there  form  into  colonies. 
Just  what  causes  some  of  them  to  become  winged  and 
others  to  remain  wingless  is  not  known;  but  whether 
winged  or  wingless  they  are  all  equally  without  sex  during 


Pnncipal  Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits  in  Idaho  119 

the  entire  summer  months.  Upon  the  appearance  of  cold 
weather  in  order  to  provide  for  the  continuation  of  the 
species  during  the  winter  months  sexed  forms  are  devel- 
oped, and  in  a few  days  the  egg  laying  season  is  on  and 
thus  the  cycle  of  life  and  reproduction  is  completed. 

We  have  a great  variety  of  aphis  and  each  variety 
has  a host  plant  upon  which  to  feed;  and  what  has  been 
said  of  the  apple  or  green  aphis  holds  good  in  a measure 
for  all  the  others.  They  all  winter  in  the  egg  state  except 
the  woolly  aphis,  which  winters,  in  both  the  live  and  egg 
state,  on  the  roots  of  the  apple  tree  mostly.  There  are 
two  forms  of  them,  the  branch  form  and  the  root  form. 
However,  they  are  one  and  the  same  kind  of  insect.  The 
fact  that  they  work  down  the  roots  deep  into  the  ground 
makes  it  more  difficult  to  control  them  and  in  some  cases 
they  become  very  numerous  and  do  serious  damage  to 
young  fruit  trees,  sapping  away  the  juices  of  the  roots  and 
leaving  the  tree  in  an  enfeebled  condition. 

We  also  have  the  plum  or  prune  aphis  and  the  peach 
and  cherry  aphis,  which  at  times  do  considerable  harm. 
The  eggs  of  the  plum,  peach  and  cherry  aphis  are  not  so 
large  and  prominent  as  the  eggs  of  the  green  apple  aphis 
and  are  laid  in  more  secluded  and  sheltered  places  and 
are  therefore  not  so  easily  found  and  recognized. 

Many  other  kinds  of  aphis  of  minor  importance  are 
found  and  some  of  these  species  are  very  numerous  on 
shade  and  forest  trees. 

There  are  several  types  of  natural  enemies  to  the  aphis 
in  Idaho;  the  principal  ones  are  Ladybugs  (ladybirds), 
Syrphus  Flies,  Lace-Winged  Flies  and  Parasitic  Flies. 

Use  lime  and  sulphur  solution  (Remedy  No.  1)  during 
the  dormant  season,  for  destroying  the  eggs  and  whale  oil 
and  kerosene  or  whale  oil  and  quassia  chips  (Remedies 
No.  6 or  No.  8)  for  summer  spraying. 

THE  WOOLLY  APHIS  OF  THE  APPLE. 

(Schizoneura  lanigera  Hausmann). 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE  AND  METHOD  OF  WORK. 

Throughout  the  summer  on  the  lower  portion  of  the 


120  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

trunk  and  particularly  on  the  water  sprouts  of  the  apple 
may  often  be  seen  small  bluish-white  flocculent  or  cottony 
patches,  which  indicate  the  presence  of  colonies  of  one 
of  the  worst  enemies  of  the  apple,  viz. : the  insect  vari- 
ously known  in  this  country  as  the  “apple-root  plant 
louse,''  “woolly  apple  louse,"  “woolly  aphis,"  etc.,  and 
abroad  very  generally  as  the  “American  blight."  It  exists 
in  two  forms,  the  one  just  referred  to,  above  ground  on  the 
trunk  or  water  shoots,  and  another  inhabiting  the  roots 
and  not  open  to  observation.  Closely  paralleling  in  these 
particulars  the  grape  phylloxera,  the  damage  from  the 
woolly  aphis  is  also  almost  altogether  due  to  the  root  form, 
the  aerial  colonies  causing  scarcely  any  injury.  On  the 
roots  its  attacks  induce  enlargements  or  galls  or  swellings 
very  similar  to  those  produced  by  the  phylloxera,  and  in 
the  cracks  of  these  galls  and  swellings  the  root  form 
occurs  in  clustered  masses.  The  injury  to  the  trees  is 
due  both  to  the  sucking  up  and  exhaustion  of  the  vital 
plant  juices,  and  to  the  poisoning  of  the  parts  attacked,  as 
indicated  by  the  consequent  abnormal  growths. 

The  damage  is  particularly  serious  in  the  case  of 
nursery  stock  and  young  trees  and  is  less  often  important 
after  the  tree  has  once  become  well  established  and  Ox 
some  size.  Where  the  insect  is  abundant  all  the  roots  of 
a young  tree  to  the  depth  of  a foot  or  so  become  clubbed 
and  knotted  by  the  growth  of  hard,  fibrous  enlargements, 
with  the  result,  in  a year  or  two,  of  the  dying  of  the 
rootlets  and  their  ultimate  decomposition  with  attendant 
disappearance  of  the  galls  and  also  of  the  aphides,  so  that 
after  this  stage  is  reached,  the  cause  of  the  injury  is  often 
obscure.  On  the  trunks  the  presence  of  the  aphides  some- 
times results  in  the  roughening  of  the  bark  or  a granu- 
lated condition  which  is  particularly  noticable  about  the 
collar  and  at  the  forks  of  branches  or  on  the  fresh  growth 
around  the  scars  caused  by  pruning,  which  latter  is  a 
favorite  locaiton.  On  the  water  shoots  the  insects  collect 
particularly  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  often  eventually 
causing  them  to  fall,  and  on  the  tender  greener  side  of  the 
stems.  The  damage  above  ground,  though  commonly  insig- 
nificant, is  useful  as  an  indication  of  the  probable  existence 


Manual  of  Horticulture,  Idaho. 


PLATE  XX 11 


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Principal  Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits  in  Idaho  121 

of  the  aphides  on  the  roots.  A badly  attacked  tree  assumes 
a sickly  appearance  and  does  not  make  satisfactory  growth 
and  the  leaves  become  dull  and  yellowish,  and  even  if  not 
killed  outright  it  is  so  weakened  that  it  becomes  especially 
subject  to  the  attacks  of  borers  and  other  insect  enemies. 
Injuries  from  the  woolly  aphis  are  almost  altogether  con- 
fined to  the  apple,  even  the  wild  crab  not  being  so  liable 
to  attack  or  at  least  injury  by  it.  There  is,  however, 
some  difference  exhibited  by  different  varieties  of  apple 
in  immunity,  and  particularly  is  the  Northern  Spy  proof 
against  it,  and  it  is  possible  that,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
grape  phylloxera,  by  employing  root  stock  from  seedlings 
of  the  more  resistant  varieties  or  from  wild  crabs,  consid- 
erable protection  would  result.  The  character  of  the  soil 
also  exerts  some  influence — that  is,  loose  dry  soils  are 
favorable  and  wet  compact  ones  are  unfavorable  to  the 
aphis. 


ORIGIN  AND  DISTRIBUTION. 

There  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
origin  of  the  woolly  aphis  of  the  apple.  The  belief  has 
fluctuated  between  a European  and  an  American  origin 
for  this  insect,  but  the  weight  of  evidence  seems  to  indicate 
the  latter.  At  any  rate,  it  is  an  insect  which  is  most 
readily  carried  from  place  to  place  with  nursery  stock  of 
the  apple,  and  it  has  been  so  transported  to  practically  all 
the  important  countries  of  the  world  which  have  been 
reached  by  colonization  or  European  settlement.  The 
woolly  aphis  was  first  noticed  in  England  in  1787,  on 
some  stock  imported  that  year  from  America,  and  was 
early  called  the  American  blight.  Hausmann  described 
it  in  1801  as  infesting  apple  trees  in  Germany,  and  within 
the  next  twenty-five  years  it  was  recognized  as  a serious 
enemy  of  this  fruit  tree  throughout  England,  Belgium, 
northern  France,  and  Germany,  but  it  seems  never  to 
have  been  especially  notable  in  the  warmer  latitudes  of 
Europe. 

It  was  very  early  introduced  into  Australia  and  New 
Zealand,  and  it  is  known  in  India  and  Chile,  and  probably 
is  as  widespread  as  any  of  the  common  injurious  fruit 


122  State  Board  of  Hoy'ticultural  Inspection 

pests.  Notwithstanding  the  possibility  of  its  being  a native 
American  insect,  it  did  not  attract  attention  in  this  country 
much  before  1850.  Its  spread  since  has,  however,  been 
rapid,  and  it  now  occurs  practically  wherever  the  apple 
is  grown.  It  has  been  reported  to  this  Bureau  from  no 
less  than  thirty-five  states  and  territories  and  nearly  one 
hundred  localities.  It  is  particularly  abundant  and  in- 
jurious in  the  latitude  of  the  Ohio  valley.  While  seemingly, 
therefore,  somewhat  affected  by  severe  cold,  it  is  able  to 
thrive  in  the  climate  of  the  northern  tier  of  states  on  the 
one  hand,  and  in  that  of  Louisiana,  New  Mexico  and 
southern  California  on  the  other. 

NATURAL  HISTORY  AND  HABITS. 

In  common  with  most  aphides,  this  species  has  a com- 
plicated life  history,  some  of  the  details  of  which  are  still 
lacking.  The  common  forms,  both  on  the  roots  and  above 
ground,  are  wingless  aphides,  not  exceeding  one-tenth  of 
an  inch  in  length,  and  of  a reddish-brown  color,  and 
abundantly  covered,  especially  in  the  aerial  form,  with  a 
flocculent  waxy  excretion.  These  are  so-called  agamic 
females  and  reproduce  themselves  by  giving  birth,  as 
observed  by  many  entomologists,  to  living  young  indefin- 
itely, perhaps  for  years,  without  the  intervention  of  other 
forms.  The  newly-born  larvae  have  none  of  the  white 
excretion,  which,  however,  soon  appears  as  a minute  down 
when  they  begin  to  feed.  These  aphides  are  also  peculiar 
in  lacking  the  honey  tubes  common  to  most  aphides,  but 
exude  the  honey-dew  from  the  tip  of  the  body.  In 
October  or  November,  or  earlier  in  the  south,  among  the 
wingless  ones  numbers  of  winged  individuals  appear, 
which  are  also  all  females,  and  are  the  parents,  as  shown 
by  the  observations,  partly  unpublished,  of  Messrs.  Howard 
and  Pergande,  of  a true  sexed  generation  of  minute,  wing- 
less larviform  aphides,  the  females  of  which,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  grape-root  aphis,  give  birth  to  a single  “winter 
egg.”  The  egg  is  attached  within  a crevice  of  the  bark, 
and,  probably,  following  the  analogy  of  the  phylloxera, 
hatches  in  the  spring  into  a female  aphis  which  originates 
a new  aerial  colony. 


Principal  Insects  Injurious  to  Emits  in  Idaho  123 

The  winged  females  appear  somewhat  abundantly  in 
autumn,  and  are  one  of  the  means  of  the  dispersal  of  the 
insect.  They  are  very  minute,  clear-winged,  gnat-like 
objects,  greenish-brown,  almost  black  in  color,  with  the 
body  covered  with  more  or  less  of  the  cottony  excretion. 

The  aerial  colonies  are  probably  killed  out  every  winter 
in  the  colder  northern  districts,  but  in  the  warmer  lati- 
tudes the  partly  grown  individuals,  at  least,  survive  pro- 
tected in  crevices  or  under  bits  of  bark,  and  remain  more 
or  less  active  during  winter  and  renew  the  colonies  the 
following  spring.  This  has  been  shown  to  be  true  in  the 
District  of  Columbia,  and  also  in  the  interior  regions  of  the 
same  latitude,  in  spite  of  the  much  colder  winters.  The 
root  form  survives  the  winter  usually  in  an  immature  con- 
dition, viz. : larvae  in  various  stages  of  development,  and 
both  in  latitudes  where  the  aerial  forms  are  killed  by  the 
severity  of  the  winter  and  elsewhere  it  seems  probable 
that  there  is  a regular  upward  migration  in  spring  and 
early  summer  from  the  roots,  the  aerial  colonies  appearing 
first  near  the  crown  and  at  a later  period  on  the  higher 
parts  of  the  trees.  At  any  time  during  the  summer  and 
fall  there  may  be  migrations  to  the  roots,  and  throughout 
the  year  the  subterranean  colonies  are  maintained. 

The  spread  of  the  insect  is  accomplished  in  part  by  the 
viviparous  females,  which  appear  in  late  summer,  but 
quite  as  commonly  perhaps  by  the  transporting  of  young 
or  partly  grown  individuals  from  tree  to  tree  or  to  distant 
orchards  by  means  of  birds  or  insects  to  which  they  have 
attached  themselves.  Its  wide  distribution  is  usually  de- 
pendant on  the  traffic  in  nursery  stock. 

REMEDIES  AND  PREVENTIVES. 

The  foregoing  account  of  the  habits  and  characteristics 
of  the  woolly  aphis  will  enable  us  to  suggest  certain  meas- 
ures to  control  it.  The  aerial  form  presents  no  especial 
difficulty,  and  can  be  very  readily  exterminated  by  the  use 
of  any  of  the  washes  recommended  for  aphides,  such  as 
kerosene  emulsion,  a strong  soap  wash,  resin  wash,  etc., 
the  only  care  necessary  being  to  see  that  the  wash  is  put 


124  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

on  with  sufficient  force  and  thoroughness  to  penetrate 
the  covering  and  protecting  cottony  excretion.  If  the 
wash  be  applied  warm,  its  penetration  will  be  considerably 
increased. 

The  much  more  important  root  form,  however,  is  more 
difficult  to  reach  and  exterminate.  No  known  remedy  will 
absolutely  eradicate  the  root  form,  but  several  remedies 
are  very  effective  and  will  keep  this  aphis  under  control. 
When  woolly  aphis  is  found  on  nursery  stock  the  stock 
should  be  destroyed  and  only  clean  trees  planted.  When 
found  on  older  trees  in  numbers  sufficient  to  cause  damage, 
the  best  remedy  is  the  lime  and  sulphur  solution  used  in 
same  strength  as  for  the  San  Jose  scale.  The  ground 
should  be  removed  at  the  base  of  the  tree,  exposing  the 
larger  roots  for  a distance  of  a foot  or  two  all  around  the 
tree.  About  five  gallons  of  lime  and  sulphur  spray  should 
then  be  poured  onto  the  roots  and  the  dirt  replaced.  If 
the  infestation  is  very  bad  there  should  be  several  applica- 
tions during  the  season.  One  pound  of  lime  dissolved  in 
five  gallons  of  warm  water  can  be  used  in  the  same  way. 
A liberal  application  of  tobacco  refuse  placed  around  the 
tree  a few  inches  under  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  also 
highly  recommended,  but  the  lime-sulphur  solution  is 
unquestionably  the  best  known  remedy. 

THE  GRAPE  VINE  PHYLLOXERA. 

( Phylloxera  V astatrix ) . 

Historical. — The  phylloxera  is  a native  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  where  it  is  found  liv- 
ing upon  the  wild  vines.  It  is  a minute  insect  related  to 
the  scale  insects  and  plant  lice. 

The  Insect. — The  phylloxera  occurs  normally  in  four 
forms : 

1.  The  gall  insect,  or  form  of  multiplication. 

2.  The  root  insect,  or  form  of  devastation. 

3.  The  winged  insect,  or  form  of  colonization. 

4.  The  sexual  insect,  or  form  of  regeneration. 

The  gall  insect  lives  upon  the  leaves,  and  is  the  com- 
monest form  on  the  wild  vines  in  the  native  habitat  of  the 


Principal  Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits  in  Idaho  125 

insect.  It  rarely  occurs  in  California.  In  Europe  it  is 
found  often  upon  American  but  rarely  upon  European 
varieties.  It  causes  little  swellings  or  galls  upon  the 
leaves  and  younger  parts  of  the  vine,  which,  though  some- 
times very  numerous,  do  little  permanent  injury.  The 
chief  danger  from  the  gall  form  is  that  it  multiplies  with 
astonishing  rapidity  and  migrates  from  the  leaves  to  the 
soil.  Here  it  attacks  the  roots  and  gives  rise  to  the  root 
form,  the  “form  of  devastation’'  the  one  that  finally 
destroys  all  the  vines  it  attacks  which  are  non-resistant. 
Every  insect  of  the  root  form  which  reaches  maturity 
lays  about  25  or  30  eggs,  each  of  which  is  capable  of  de- 
veloping into  a new  egg  layer  needing  no  fertilization.  As 
there  are  from  five  to  seven  such  generations  during  the 
year,  the  increase  in  numbers  is  extremely  rapid. 

Sometimes  during  the  summer,  usually  July  or  August, 
some  of  the  eggs  laid  by  the  root  insects  develop  into 
insects  of  slightly  different  form,  called  nymphs.  They 
are  somewhat  larger  than  the  normal  root  form  and  show 
slight  protuberances  on  the  sides,  which  finally  develop 
into  wings.  These  are  the  winged  or  colonizing  insects, 
which  emerge  from  the  soil,  and,  though  possessing  very 
weak  powers  of  flight,  are  capable  of  sailing  a short  dis- 
tance, and  if  a wind  is  blowing  may  be  taken  many  rods, 
even  miles.  Those  which  reach  a vine  crawl  to  the  under 
side  of  a leaf  and  deposit  from  three  to  six  eggs.  These 
eggs  are  of  two  sizes,  the  smaller  of  which  produces  males, 
the  larger  females.  The  female,  after  fertilization,  mi- 
grates to  the  rough  bark  of  the  two-year-old  wood,  where 
she  deposits  a single  egg  called  the  winter  egg,  which 
remains  upon  the  vine  until  the  following  spring.  The 
insect  which  hatches  from  this  egg  in  the  spring  goes 
either  to  the  young  leaves  and  becomes  a gall-maker,  or 
descends  to  the  roots  and  gives  rise  to  a new  generation  of 
egg  laying  root-feeders.  The  normal  and  complete  life 
cycle  of  the  phylloxera  appears  then  to  be  as  follows.  Male 
and  female  insects  (one  generation  in  autumn)  ; gall  in- 
sects (one-fifth  of  the  first  generation  while  the  vines  are 
in  leaf)  ; root  insect  (an  unknown  number  of  generations 
throughout  the  year)  ; nymphs,  which  become  winged 


126  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

insects  (one  generation  in  midsummer).  The  gall  stage 
may  be  admitted,  as  it  generally  is  in  California,  and 
insects  which  hatch  from  the  fertilized  eggs  laid  by  the 
female  go  directly  to  the  root  and  produce  offspring,  which 
are  indistinguishable  from  the  root  form  produced  in  the 
normal  cycle.  For  how  many  generations  the  root  form  can 
exist  and  reproduce  without  the  invigoration  supposed  to 
come  from  the  production  of  the  sexual  form  is  not  known, 
but  certainly  for  four  years  and  probably  more. 

All  forms  of  the  phylloxera  are  extremely  minute,  the 
root  form  being  about  one-twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  long 
when  it  reaches  the  adult  egg-laying  state,  and  little  more 
than  half  this  length  when  young  and  active.  It  is  just 
large  enough  to  be  seen  by  the  unaided  eye  in  a good  light 
when  its  appearance  is  known,  and,  by  the  help  of  a glass 
magnifying  five  diameters,  its  legs  and  antennse  are 
plainly  visible.  Its  color  is  light  greenish  yellow  in  sum- 
mer, and  somewhat  darker  in  winter ; so  that  when 
numerous  attacked  roots  appear  as  though  dusted  in  spots 
with  powdered  mustard  or  cinnamon.  The  newly  hatched 
insect  is  fairly  active,  and  at  first  moves  about  from  place 
to  place  on  the  roots;  but  finally,  when  it  reaches  the  egg- 
laying  stage,  it  inserts  its  sucking-tube  into  the  root  and 
remains  fixed. 

Nature  of  Injury. — The  amount  of  nutriment  taken 
from  the  vine  by  such  minute  insects,  even  when  present 
in  the  immense  numbers  in  which  they  sometimes  occur, 
is  not  sufficient  to  account  for  the  disastrous  effect  upon 
the  plant.  The  death  of  the  vine  is  due  to  the  decay  which 
sets  in  wherever  the  phylloxera  has  attacked  the  roots. 
Wherever  a phylloxera  inserts  its  sucking-tube  a swelling 
is  produced,  composed  of  soft  tissue  which  soon  decays. 
When  this  swelling  ocurs  at  the  end  of  a young  rootlet, 
growth  in  length  is  stopped;  when  it  occurs  on  the  larger 
roots  a kind  of  “cancer”  or  decay  spot  is  finally  formed, 
which  soon  extends  around  the  root,  and  all  that  portion 
of  the  root  below  the  point  of  attack  dies. 

During  the  first  year  or  two  after  the  vine  is  attacked 
there  is  little  apparent  damage.  In  fact,  the  effect  of  the 
attack  of  the  phylloxera  is  equivalent  to  root  pruning,  and 


Principal  Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits  in  Idaho  127 

in  some  cases  results  in  an  unusually  large  crop  of  grapes. 
The  year  after  this  crop,  however,  the  vine  having  endured 
the  double  strain  of  heavy  bearing  and  root  injury,  is 
unable  to  recuperate  and  generally  dies.  In  rich,  moist 
soil  the  death  of  the  vine  is  not  so  sudden,  and  two  or 
even  three  small  crops  may  be  obtained  after  symptoms  of 
the  disease  are  evident. 

So  far  as  is  known  we  have  had  phylloxera  in  but  one 
locality  in  the  state  and  that  is  in  and  around  Juliaetta, 
Latah  county.  It  occurs  on  the  European  varieties  and  so 
far  as  known  it  has  only  appeared  as  a root  insect.  A 
good  portion  of  the  vineyards  have  been  pulled  up  and  it 
has  almost,  if  not  entirely,  been  eradicated.  It  is  well  to 
be  on  the  lookout  for  it,  however,  in  the  different  parts  of 
the  grape  growing  districts. 

REMEDY  FOR  PHYLLOXERA. 

The  gall  form  of  phylloxera  on  American  vines  can 
be  prevented  by  spraying  the  vines  in  winter  with  liquids 
to  kill  the  winter  eggs;  but  the  treatment  has  no  effect  on 
the  root  forms,  which  in  California  hibernate  abundantly 
in  the  soil.  No  cuttings  should  ever  be  used  from  an  in- 
fected vineyard,  and  all  vines  within  a radius  of  50  feet 
from  the  infested  vine  should  be  dug  up  and  burned,  not 
allowing  any  vegetation  of  any  kind  to  grow  for  a year  or 
two.  If  a vineyard  has  become  infested  to  any  extent,  the 
only  sure  remedy  known  is  to  destroy  the  infested  vine- 
yard. If  the  disease  is  allowed  to  continue  it  means  the 
destruction  of  all  vineyards  in  the  neighborhood. 

THE  CLOVER  LEAF  MITE. 

(Red  Spider). 

The  clover  leaf  mite  is  more  commonly  known  in  the 
state  as  the  Red  Spider.  It  belongs  to  the  sucking  or  haus- 
tellate  species  and  is  so  small  that  it  is  hardly  discernable 
to  the  naked  eye.  In  shape  it  very  much  resembles  the 
spider  and  it  very  often  weaves  an  exceedingly  fine  and 
compact  web,  generally  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf — 
hence  the  name  ‘‘Red  Spider.^' 


128  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

The  color  of  the  insect  is  most  often  red,  but  it  varies 
on  different  plants  from  almost  a clear  white  to  a brilliant 
red;  so  also  with  the  color  of  the  eggs.  The  insect  is 
quite  lively  and  moves  about  from  place  to  place  sucking 
the  sap  from  the  leaves  of  the  plant.  There  are  sometimes 
hundreds  of  them  on  a single  leaf.  They  are  worse  on  the 
prune  tree  than  on  any  other  of  the  fruits,  but  they  inhabit 
nearly  all  kinds  of  shrubbery,  plants  and  vines.  They  are 
especially  bad  on  rose  bushes  and  sweet  peas.  They  are 
sometimes  very  troublesome  on  house  plants. 

The  effect  of  their  work  may  be  easily  noticed  in  the 
pale,  sickly  appearance  of  the  plant  upon  which  they  feed. 
The  fact  that  they  inhabit  so  many  different  plants  makes 
it  very  hard  to  bring  them  under  control. 

REMEDY  FOR  THE  CLOVER  LEAF  MITE. 

In  order  to  destroy  the  clover  leaf  mite  use  lime  and 
sulphur  solution  (Remedy  No.  1)  in  the  dormant  season 
and  whale  oil  and  kerosene  (Remedy  No.  6)  in  the  grow- 
ing season. 


THE  PEAR  LEAF  BLISTER  MITE. 

The  pear-leaf  blister  mite  appears  in  early  summer  and 
causes  thickened  reddish  spots  and  blotches  on  the  leaves 
of  the  pear.  Later  in  the  season  these  spots  die  and  turn 
brown,  sometimes  causing  the  foliage  to  drop  prematurely. 
This  pest  proves  serious  on  individual  trees  but  does  not 
spread  very  rapidly. 

REMEDY  FOR  THE  PEAR  LEAF  BLISTER  MITE. 

As  a remedy  for  the  pear  leaf  blister  mite  the  use  of 
lime  and  sulphur  solution  (Remedy  No.  1)  in  dormant 
season  will  prove  effective. 


■< 


]MaiiuaJ  of  liurLicul  I ure.  Idaluj. 


PLATE  XXUl 


WEALTHY 


CHAPTER  XV. 


PRINCIPAL  FUNGUS  DISEASES  OF  FRUITS  IN 

IDAHO. 

COMPILED  BY  J.  U.  MCPHERSON. 

THE  CAUSE  AND  PREVENTION  OF  PEAR  BLIGHT.  • 

There  is  probably  no  disease  of  fruit  trees  so  thoroughly 
destructive  as  pear  blight,  or  fire  blight,  which  attacks 
pears,  apples  and  other  pomaceous  fruits.  Some  diseases 
may  be  more  regular  in  their  annual  appearance,  and  more 
persistent  in  their  attacks  on  the  fruits  mentioned,  but 
when  it  does  appear  pear  blight  heads  the  list  of  disas- 
trous maladies.  Again,  no  disease  has  so  completely  baffled 
all  attempts  to  find  a satisfactory  remedy,  and,  notwith- 
standing the  great  progress  made  within  the  last  ten  years 
in  the  treatment  of  plant  diseases  by  spraying  or  other- 
wise, pear  blight  has  until  recently  continued  its  destruc- 
tion unchecked. 


WHAT  IS  PEAR  BLIGHT? 

Pear  blight  may  be  defined  as  a contagious  bacterial 
disease  of  the  pear  and  allied  fruit  trees.  It  attacks  and 
rapidly  kills  the  blossoms,  young  fruits,  and  new  twig 
growth,  and  runs  down  in  the  living  bark  to  the  larger 
limbs,  and  thence  to  the  trunk.  While  the  bacteria  them- 
selves rarely  kill  the  leaves  (at  the  most  only  occasionally 
attacking  the  stems  and  midribs  of  the  youngest  ones)  all 
of  the  foliage  on  the  blighted  branches  must,  of  course, 
eventually  die.  The  leaves  usually  succumb  in  from  one 
to  two  weeks  after  the  branch  on  which  they  grow  is 
killed,  but  remain  attached,  and  are  the  most  striking  and 
prominent  feature  of  the  disease. 

The  most  important  parts  of  the  tree  killed  by  the 
blight  are  the  inner  bark  and  the  cambium  layer  of  the 
limbs  and  trunk.  Of  course,  when  the  bark  of  a limb  is 


130  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

killed,  the  whole  limb  soon  dies,  but  where  the  limb  is 
simply  girdled  by  the  disease,  it  may  send  out  leaves  again 
the  next  season  and  then  die.  All  parts  of  the  trees  below 
the  point  reached  by  the  blight  are  healthy,  no  more  injury 
resulting  to  the  unaffected  parts  of  the  tree  than  if  the 
blighted  parts  had  been  killed  by  fire  girdling. 

Blight  varies  greatly  in  severity  and  in  the  manner  in 
which  it  attacks  the  tree.  Sometimes  it  attacks  only  the 
blossom  clusters  or  perhaps  only  the  young  tips  of  the 
growing  twigs ; sometimes  it  runs  down  on  the  main 
branches  and  trunk ; and  again  it  extends  down  only  a few 
inches  from  the  point  of  attack.  The  sudden  collapse  of 
the  foliage  on  the  blighted  branches  has  led  many  to 
believe  that  the  disease  progresses  more  rapidly  than  it 
really  does.  It  rarely  extends  further  than  two  or  three 
inches  from  the  point  of  attack  in  one  day,  but  occasionally 
reaches  as  much  as  one  foot. 

It  is  an  easy  matter  to  determine  when  the  disease  has 
expended  itself  on  any  limb  or  tree.  When  it  is  still  pro- 
gressing, the  discolored,  blighted  portion  blends  off  gradu- 
ally into  the  normal  bark,  but  when  it  has  stopped  there 
is  a sharp  line  of  demarkation  between  the  diseased  and 
healthy  portions. 


CAUSE  OF  THE  DISEASE. 

Pear  blight  is  caused  by  a very  minute  microbe  of  the 
class  bacteria.  This  microbe  was  discovered  by  Professor 
T.  J.  Burrill  in  1879,  and  is  known  to  science  as  Bacillus 
amylivorous.  The  following  are  the  principal  proofs  that 
it  causes  the  disease:  (1)  The  microbes  are  found  in 
immense  numbers  in  freshly  blighted  twigs;  (2)  they  can 
be  taken  from  an  infected  tree  and  cultivated  in  pure  cul- 
tures, and  in  this  way  can  be  kept  for  months  at  a time; 
(3)  by  innoculating  a suitable  healthy  tree  with  these 
cultures  the  disease  is  produced;  (4)  in  a tree  so  innocu- 
lated  the  microbes  are  again  found  in  abundance. 

LIFE  HISTORY  OF  THE  MICROBE. 

Blight  first  appears  in  spring  on  the  blossoms.  About 


Principal  Fungus  Diseases  of  Fruits  in  Idaho  131 

the  time  the  tree  is  going  out  of  blossom  certain  flower 
clusters  turn  black  and  dry  up  as  if  killed  by  frost.  The 
blighting  of  blossoms  or  blossom  blight,  as  it  is  called,  is 
one  of  the  most  serious  features  of  pear  blight.  One  of 
the  most  remarkable  things  about  this  disease  is  the 
rapidity  with  which  it  spreads  through  an  orchard  at 
blooming  time.  The  microbes  travel  about  quite  readily, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  they  are  surrounded  and 
held  together  and  to  the  tree  by  sticky  and  gummy  sub- 
stances. They  are  able  to  live  and  multiply  in  the  nectar 
of  the  blossom,  from  whence  they  are  carried  away  by 
bees  and  other  insects,  which  visit  the  blossoms  in  great 
numbers  for  the  honey  and  pollen.  If  a few  early  blossoms 
are  affected,  the  insects  will  scatter  the  disease  from 
flower  to  flower  and  from  tree  to  tree  until  it  becomes  an 
epidemic  in  the  orchard,  h'rom  the  blossoms  the  disease 
may  extend  downwards  into  the  branches  or  run  in  from 
lateral  fruit  spurs  so  as  to  do  a great  amount  of  damage 
by  girdling  the  limbs.  The  blight  also  gains  entrance 
through  the  tips  of  growing  shoots.  In  the  nursery,  when 
trees  are  not  flowering,  this  is  the  usual  mode  of  infection. 
This  is  often  called  twig  blight,  a good  term  to  distinguish 
it  from  blossom  blight,  provided  it  is  understood  that  this 
simply  indicates  different  modes  of  attack  of  the  same 
disease. 


CONDITIONS  AFFECTING  THE  DISEASE. 

The  severity  of  the  attacks,  that  is,  the  distance  which 
the  blight  extends  down  the  branches,  depends  on  a num- 
ber of  different  conditions,  some  of  which  are  under  the 
control  of  the  grower.  It  is  well  known,  however,  that  the 
pear  and  quince  are  usually  attacked  oftener  than  the 
apple.  Some  varieties  of  pears,  like  Duchess  and  Keiffer 
resist  the  disease  much  better  than  others,  such  as  Bart- 
lett, Idaho  and  Clapp's  Favorite.  It  may  be  stated  in  a 
general  way  that  the  trees  most  severely  injured  by  blight 
are  those  which  are  healthy,  vigorous,  well  cultivated,  and 
well  fed,  or,  in  other  words,  those  that  are  making  rapid 
growth  of  new,  soft  tissues.  Climatic  conditions  greatly 


132  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

influence  the  disease,  warm,  moist  weather,  with  frequent 
showers  favoring  it;  dry,  cool  and  sunny  weather  hinder- 
ing it;  and  very  dry  weather  checking  it  to  a considerable 
degree. 

The  pear  microbe  is  a very  delicate  organism  and  can- 
not withstand  drying  for  any  length  of  time.  In  the 
blighted  twigs  exposed  to  ordinary  weather  it  dries  out  in 
a week  or  two  and  dies.  It  causes  the  greater  part  of  the 
damage  in  the  month  or  two  following  blossom  time,  but 
twig  blight  may  be  prevalent  at  any  time  through  the 
summer  when  new  growth  is  coming  out.  In  the  nursery 
severe  attacks  often  occur  through  the  summer.  In  the 
majority  of  cases,  however,  the  disease  stops  by  the  close 
of  the  growing  season.  At  that  time  the  line  of  separation 
between  the  live  and  dead  wood  is  quite  marked,  and 
probably  not  one  case  in  several  hundred  would  be  found 
where  the  diseased  wood  blends  off  into  the  healthy  parts 
and  the  blight  is  still  in  active  progress.  In  the  old  dried 
bark,  where  the  disease  has  stopped,  the  microbes  have  all 
died  and  disappeared. 

Unless  the  microbes  keep  on  multiplying  and  extending 
in  the  tree,  they  soon  die  out.  In  certain  cases  the  blight 
keeps  up  a sort  of  slow  battle  with  the  trees  through  the 
summer,  so  that  at  the  close  of  the  season,  when  the  tree 
goes  into  a dormant  condition,  active  blight  is  still  at 
work  in  it.  This  is  also  true  of  the  late  summer  and 
autumn  infections.  In  these  cases  the  blight  usually  con- 
tinues through  the  winter.  The  germs  keep  alive  along 
the  advancing  margin  of  the  blighted  area,  and  although 
their  development  is  very  slow,  it  is  continuous.  Probably 
the  individual  microbes  live  longer  in  winter.  At  any  rate, 
the  infected  bark  retains  its  moisture  longer,  and  generally 
the  dead  barks  contains  living  microbes  during  a much 
longer  period  that  it  does  in  summer.  It  has  already  been 
found  that  this  microbe  stands  the  cold  well. 

When  root  pressure  begins  in  early  spring  the  ,trees 
are  gorged  with  sap.  Under  these  favorable  conditions 
the  microbes  which  have  lived  over  winter  start  anew  and 
extend  into  the  bark.  The  new  blight  which  has  developed 
in  winter  and  spring  is  easily  recognized  by  the  moist 


Principal  Fungus  Diseases  of  Fruits  in  Idaho  133 

and  fresh  appearance  of  the  blighted  bark,  as  contrasted 
with  the  old,  dead,  and  dry  bark  of  the  previous  summer. 
The  warm  and  moist  weather  which  usually  brings  out  the 
blossoms  is  particularly  favorable  to  the  development  of 
the  disease.  At  this  time  it  spreads  rapidly,  and  the  gum 
is  exuded  copiously  from  various  points  in  the  bark  and 
runs  down  the  tree  in  a long  line.  Bees,  wasps  and  flies 
are  attracted  to  this  gum  and  undoubtedly  carry  the 
microbes  to  the  blossoms.  From  these  first  flowers  it  is 
carried  to  others,  and  so  on  till  the  blossoms  are  all  killed 
or  until  the  close  of  the  blossoming  period.  Even  after  the 
blooming  period  it  is  almost  certain  that  insects  acciden- 
tally carry  the  blight  to  the  young  tips  and  in  this  manner 
are  instrumental  in  causing  twig  blight  also.  The  key 
to  the  whole  situation  is  found  in  those  cases  of  active 
blight  (comparatively  few)  which  hold  over  winter.  If 
they  can  be  found  and  destroyed,  the  pear  blight  question 
will  be  solved,  for  the  reason  that  without  the  microbes 
there  can  be  no  blight,  no  matter  how  favorable  the  con- 
ditions may  be  for  it;  or  to  use  a common  expression, 
there  will  be  none  left  for  seed. 

REMEDY  FOR  PEAR  BLIGHT. 

There  is  but  one  known  method  of  controlling  pear 
blight  up  to  the  present  time,  and  that  is  the  judicious  use 
of  pruning  knife  and  saw.  All  shoots,  limbs,  fruit  spurs 
or  twigs  that  show  the  least  signs  of  this  dread  disease 
should  be  cut  out  very  soon,  lest  the  disease  should  become 
epidemic  and  cause  great  damage  to  the  orchard.  The 
cut  should  be  made  a foot  below  the  part  affected,  if  pos- 
sible, and  the  saw  or  knife  used  should  be  disinfected 
after  each  cut  by  dipping  it  into  kerosene,  a weak  solution 
of  carbolic  acid  water,  or  a solution  of  corrosive  sublimate, 
one  part  to  500  of  water.  All  large  wounds  should  be 
immediately  painted  over,  to  keep  out  the  infectious  germs. 

APPLE  SCAB. 

Apple  scab  is  perhaps  the  most  destructive  fungus 
enemy  of  the  fruit  growers  in  the  northern  part  of  the 


134  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

state,  owing  to  the  greater  amount  of  moisture  and  more 
humid  atmosphere,  occupying  among  diseases  a position 
ranking  with  that  of  the  codling  moth  among  the  insect 
foes  of  the  apple.  It  very  seldom  if  ever  occurs  in  the 
southern  or  arid  parts  of  the  state.  Its  injuries  are  greater 
than  are  generally  appreciated,  both  in  effect  and  extent. 
The  yield  of  fruit  per  tree  is  greatly  lessened  whenever 
the  scab  is  present:  (1)  By  the  premature  dropping  of 
young  apples,  due  to  the  attacks,  soon  after  the  blossoms 
fall,  of  the  scab  fungus  on  flowers,  stems  and  fruits;  (2) 
by  the  smaller  size  of  the  scabby  apples  that  mature,  and 
(3),  by  the  loss,  just  before  picking,  due  to  the  fact  that 
scabby  fruit  does  not  cling  well  to  the  tree  and  is  more 
easily  blown  off;  (4)  the  value  of  the  fruit  harvested  is 
greatly  diminished,  since  spotted  apples  must  be  placed  in 
a lower  grade  and  sold  for  less  than  clean  fruit;  (5)  their 
keeping  quality  is  also  impaired,  as  molds  and  other  fungi, 
which  cause  decay,  gain  entrance  through  the  scab  spots 
and  increase  the  loss  during  storage.  Nor  is  the  damage 
confined  to  the  fruit.  The  leaves  are  also  attacked  by  the 
fungus,  and  the  resultant  spotting  and  distortion  consid- 
erably lessen  the  vigor  and  general  health  of  the  tree. 

CAUSE. 

Apple  scab  is  caused  by  the  summer  or  conideal  stage 
of  a fungus.  This  fungus  attains  its  perfect  form  on  dead 
apples  leaves.  The  disease  first  appears  on  the  leaves 
shortly  after  they  unfold,  the  first  infections  having  come 
from  spores  blown  by  the  wind  from  the  dead  leaves  of 
the  previous  season.  The  olive  green,  velvety  spots  on  the 
leaves  and  fruit  produce  great  numbers  of  spores,  which 
continue  to  spread  the  scab  broadcast.  In  the  wet  season 
the  flowers  and  very  young  fruit  and  its  pedicels  are 
attacked.  The  fungus  grows  in  this  manner  throughout 
the  summer  and  autumn.  In  the  late  autumn  and  winter 
the  Ventura  or  perfect  stage  is  produced  on  the  dead  apple 
leaves  on  the  ground. 

The  relative  severity  of  the  disease  is  influenced  by  a 
number  of  factors,  chief  of  which  is  the  weather.  A low 


Pl'incipal  Fungus  Diseases  of  Fruits  in  Idaho  135 

temperature  and  abundant  moisture  favor  the  development 
of  the  fungus,  and  consequently  scab  is  worse  in  cool,  damp 
seasons. 

Cultural  conditions  in  the  orchards  influence  scab 
fungus  as  much  as  they  do  the  codling  moth.  Neglected, 
unpruned  and  uncultivated  trees  are  more  subject  to  scab, 
and  careful  attention  to  the  general  condition  of  the 
orchard  in  connection  with  the  spraying  will  always  be 
profitable. 

Varieties  of  apples  differ  in  their  susceptibility  to  scab, 
but  susceptible  varieties  often  possess  counterbalancing 
desirable  qualities  which  lead  to  their  extensive  use. 

REMEDY  FOR  APPLE  SCAB. 

As  multitudes  of  the  spores  of  apple  scab  winter  on 
the  fallen  leaves  they  should  all  be  plowed  under  or  raked 
up  and  burned.  All  prunings  and  twigs  should  be  carefully 
gathered  and  burned. 

Use  lime  and  sulphur  solution  (Remedy  No.  1),  just  as 
the  buds  are  beginning  to  open,  as  this  is  an  excellent 
fungicide  as  well  as  an  insecticide.  It  has  long  been  the 
custom  to  use  the  Bordeaux  mixture  for  this  disease,  the 
first  application  at  the  time  of  first  spray  for  codling  moth 
and  every  two  or  three  weeks  for  three  sprayings,  or  more 
if  the  season  is  cold  and  damp.  While  Bordeaux,  if  prop- 
erly used,  will  kill  the  scab,  it  often  causes  a russeting  of 
the  fruit,  which  is  nearly  as  serious  as  the  disease  itself. 
In  the  last  four  years  experiments  have  been  made  to 
determine  the  practicability  of  using  a weak  lime  and 
sulphur  solution  in  place  of  Bordeaux  and  all  tests  so  far 
seem  to  indicate  that  the  proper  remedy  has  been  found, 
although  later  tests  may  bring  forth  developments  not  yet 
anticipated.  This  spray  has  been  tested  at  various 
strengths  but  a concensus  of  opinion  would  indicate  that 
home  cooked  mixture  5 pounds  sulphur  and  5 pounds  lime 
to  50  gallons  of  water  or  prepared  mixture  in  proportions 
of  one  part  solution  to  20  parts  water  would  be  about 
right. 

While  we  have  not  had  sufficient  experience  to  unquali- 


136  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

fiedly  recommend  the  lime  and  sulphur  spray,  we  would 
advise  growers  in  sections  where  scab  is  prevalent  to  make 
a thorough  test  the  coming  season,  using  lime  and  sulphur 
solution  at  strength  given  above  at  times  and  in  manner 
as  formerly  used  with  the  Bordeaux. 

BROWN  ROT  OR  FRUIT  MOLD. 

Description — This  is  the  only  serious  fungus  disease  of 
the  plum,  prune,  cherry  and  peach  yet  known  in  the 
orchards  of  the  northwest,  where  it  has  become  introduced 
within  the  last  few  years.  Usually  the  first  sympton  of 
this  disease  to  attract  attention  is  the  numerous  grayish- 
white  pustules  that  appear  on  the  attacked  fruit  when  it 
is  nearly  ripe.  The  pustules  consist  of  the  reproductive 
bodies  or  spores  of  the  fungus,  and  under  the  microscope 
are  seen  to  be  oval  in  shape  and  arranged  in  rows  like 
chains  of  beads.  The  disease  is  scattered  by  these  spores 
being  carried  by  the  air  currents  or  in  some  cases  by 
insects.  Under  favorable  conditions  the  spores  quickly 
germinate,  sending  out  a germ  tube  that  will  penetrate  a 
healthy  fruit  and  soon  cause  it  to  rot.  A curious  feature 
of  this  fungus  is  that  it  causes  the  attacked  fruit  to  be- 
come dry  and  hard,  in  which  condition  it  may  remain 
hanging  on  the  tree  for  a long  time.  It  is  mainly  on  these 
fruits  that  the  fungus  passes  the  winter,  and  on  such 
fruit  the  spores  may  be  found  in  abundance  in  the  spring. 
The  disease  spreads  much  more  rapidly  in  damp  weather 
than  in  dry,’  so  that  the  amount  of  damage  it  does  is 
much  more  serious  in  some  seasons  than  in  others. 

REMEDY  FOR  BROWN  ROT  OR  FRUIT  MOLD. 

Use  lime  and  sulphur  solution  (Remedy  No.  1)  at  the 
first  opening  of  the  buds  and  Bordeaux  mixture  (Remedy 
No.  7)  for  summer  spraying. 

LEAF  BLIGHT  OF  THE  PEAR. 

In  connection  with  the  discussion  of  the  true  pear 
blight  it  seems  desirable  to  mention  the  leaf  blight  which 


IVrfimial  of  TTnrt  icii 1 1 lire,  Idaho. 


PT.ATR  XXIV 


rnUMES  (JOI.DEN 


Principal  Fungus  Diseases  of  Fruits  in  Idaho  137 

is  entirely  distinct  from  the  former  disease.  Leaf  blight 
is  caused  by  the  fungus  Entomosporium  maculatum,  while 
the  true  pear  blight  is  caused  by  a bacteria  or  germ.  Pear 
twigs  attacked  by  true  pear  blight  show  curled  and  black- 
ened leaves — this  feature  being  very  prominent,  but  usu- 
ally the  leaves  themselves  are  not  killed  by  the  pear  blight 
disease,  but  die  as  a necessary  consequence,  following  the 
death  of  the  twig  to  which  it  was  attached. 

Leaf  blight  is  one  of  the  most  serious  diseases  of  the 
pear,  and  is  also  frequently  abundant  on  the  quince.  The 
blight  first  develops  soon  after  the  leaves  become  fully 
expanded  in  spring,  appearing  first  as  minute  reddish  spots 
on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves.  As  they  increase  in 
size  and  numbers  considerable  areas  of  the  leaves  may 
become  involved  by  the  fungus  itself  while  the  areas  in 
between  the  spots  become  greatly  weakened.  The  reddish 
spots  soon  change  to  a deep  brown  with  dark  center,  finally 
becoming  nearly  black.  With  a magnifying  glass  minute 
black  dots  may  be  discovered  in  the  center  of  the  spots, 
these  dots  being  the  fruit  or  spores  of  the  fungus.  When 
leaves  are  badly  affected  it  results  in  severe  shedding. 

Unfortunately  leaf  blight  is  by  no  means  confined  to 
the  leaves  but  appears  on  both  twig  and  fruit.  The  former 
are  attacked  much  the  same  as  leaves.  The  fruit  first 
becomes  covered  with  reddish  pimples,  soon  changing  to 
nearly  black,  while  the  diseased  tissue  begins  to  crack  in 
such  a manner  as  to  ruin  the  fruit.  Even  when  the  pears 
attain  full  size,  the  cracking  may  be  so  severe  that  the 
fruit  will  be  unsalable. 

Hot,  dry  weather  seems  to  be  favorable  to  an  increase 
of  pear  leaf  blight,  though  the  disease  is  liable  to  develop 
almost  every  season.  When  young,  tender  leaves  are  at- 
tacked, the  result  is  that  they  become  curled,  due  to  a 
contraction  of  the  diseased  areas.  Full  grown  leaves  usu- 
ally retain  their  shape  even  when  completely  covered  by 
the  black  spots. 

REMEDY  FOR  PEAR  LEAF  BLIGHT. 

Use  lime  and  sulphur  solution  (Remedy  No.  1)  as  the 


138  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

buds  begin  to  open  and  Bordeaux  mixture  (Remedy  No.  7) 
for  summer  spraying.  Several  sprayings  may  be  needed. 

CROWN  GALL,  ROOT  GALL,  ROOT  KNOT,  HAIRY  ROOT. 

May  be  all  the  same  disease  yet  assuming  different 
types  or  forms.  This  fungus  or  bacterial  disease  appears 
mostly  on  apple  trees  but  may  occur  on  different  varieties 
of  deciduous  fruit  trees,  plants  and  shrubs.  It  is  very  fre- 
quently found  on  nursery  stock  and  is  usually  noted  by 
the  enlargement  or  knotted  appearance  of  the  roots.  These 
abnormal  growths,  knots  or  galls  may  vary  in  size  from  a 
foot  in  length  and  diameter  to  very  small  excrescences  on 
the  fine  roots.  In  the  case  of  hairy  root  it  may  be  noted  by 
the  great  numbers  of  hair-like  roots  extending  from  the 
main  base  or  tap  root. 

We  deem  that  there  is  a possibility  of  infection  from 
spores  being  driven  by  the  wind  or  by  contact  from  plant 
to  plant. 

All  plants  .showing  the  least  signs  of  the  disease  should 
be  promptly  condemned  and  burned  up.  The  most  careful 
and  rigid  inspection  for  the  disease  should  be  given  all 
nursery  stock  before  being  planted. 

GOOSEBERRY  MILDEW. 

This  troublesome  disease  usually  appears  in  the  spring 
upon  the  developing  buds  and  leaves,  first  showing  as  a 
sparse  cob-webby  coating,  which  later  develops  into  a 
denser  white,  powdery  coating.  The  young  berries  are 
also  attacked.  A serious  disease  which  very  much  inter- 
feres with  the  growing  of  choice  foreign  varieties. 

REMEDY  FOR  GOOSEBERRY  MILDEW. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  experience  that  Remedy  No. 
1 used  in  the  dormant  season  has  been  most  effective.  If 
summer  spray  is  needed,  use  Remedy  No.  7. 

PUSTULE  SPOT  FUNGUS. 

This  is  a disease  that  has  lately  made  its  appearance  in 


Principal  Fungus  Diseases  of  Fruits  in  Idaho  139 

Idaho.  It  attacks  the  peach,  apricot  and  nectarine.  The 
markings  on  the  fruit  sometimes  very  much  resemble  the 
San  Jose  scale  but  a closer  examination  easily  reveals  the 
difference. 

The  pustule  consists  of  a small  blister  or  elevation 
of  the  cuticle  or  skin  of  the  fruit.  It  sometimes  assumes 
quite  a scabby  appearance.  This  fungus  disease  has  un- 
doubtedly been  lately  imported  from  some  other  state. 

Use  lime  and  sulphur  solution  (Remedy  No.  1)  in  the 
dormant  season  and  Bordeaux  mixture  (Remedy  No.  7) 
for  later  spraying. 

We  also  recommend  Remedies  No.  1 and  7 for  powdery 
mildew  of  the  peach,  apple,  grape  and  other  fungus  dis- 
eases. Remedy  No.  1 must  always  be  used  in  the  dormant 
season  and  No.  7 for  summer  treatment. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


CONTROL  OF  PEAR  BLIGHT. 

BY  P.  J.  O'GARA. 

Assistant  Pathologist  Department  of  Agriculture, 

The  germ  causing  this  disease  is  named  by  bacteriolo- 
gists Bacillus  amylovorus.  For  our  purpose  of  discussion 
we  may  call  it  the  pear  blight  bacillus,  the  pear  blight  germ 
or  the  pear  blight  microbe,  all  these  terms  meaning  prac- 
tically the  same  thing.  These  germs  are  among  the  most 
minute  of  living  things.  Bacteria  or  germs  are  vegetable 
organisms  and  are  as  truly  plants  as  trees,  grasses,  etc. 
However,  they  are  very  low  down  in  the  scale  of  the  vege- 
table kingdom  since  the  individual  organism  consists  of  a 
single  cell,  which  may  be  elliptical  or  rod-like  in  form. 
They  multiply  by  lengthening  a little  and  then  pinching  to 
two.  This  is  the  only  way  in  which  they  may  increase 
their  numbers.  This  process  can  take  place  within  half 
an  hour  or  less,  and  this  I have  proven  by  observation  in 
a hanging  drop  culture  under  the  microscope;  although 
they  are  extremely  minute  they  may  be  measured  by 
means  of  microscopical  apparatus.  The  standard  of  meas- 
urement for  these  minute  objects  is  the  micromillimeter, 
and  a millimeter  is  about  one  twenty-fifth  part  of  an  inch. 
The  pear  blight  germ  is  about  two-thirds  to  three-fourths 
of  a micromillimeter  wide,  and  from  one  to  one  and  one- 
half  micromillimeters  long  when  it  has  reached  its  mature 
stage.  As  another  illustration  showing  their  minute  size 
I may  say  that  if  25,000  pear  blight  germs  were  placed 
end  to  end  they  would  scarcely  measure  an  inch  in  length. 
Curiously  enough,  the  young  germs  are  longer  than  the 
older  ones.  When  they  are  growing  rapidly  their  develop- 
ment in  length  goes  on  more  rapidly  than  their  division. 
This  germ  forms  no  spores,  and  for  this  reason  cannot 


142  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

live  over  the  dry  season,  as  do  the  germs  of  anthrax,  which 
form  spores.  The  pear  blight  germ  is  very  sensitive  to 
drying,  and,  in  fact,  is  a very  short-lived  germ.  The  fact 
that  it  does  not  form  spores  is  highly  important,  as  spore- 
forming bacteria  are  capable  of  living  over  in  dust  which 
may  be  blown  about  by  the  winds.  The  germ  dies  rapidly 
in  the  blighted  tissues,  as  soon  as  the  tissues  have  become 
fully  killed.  It  cannot  withstand  drying,  usually  dying 
within  two  weeks  or  so.  It  is  killed  by  exposure  to  direct 
sunshine  in  a very  few  minutes,  usually  not  more  than  ten 
minutes  unless  protected  by  the  bark  or  twigs.  It  rapidly 
dies  when  washed  into  the  soil,  since  it  can  no  longer  get 
the  necessary  food  for  its  existence  and  multiplication. 
In  fact,  the  pear  blight  germs  disappear  and  die  very 
shortly  after  they  are  exuded  or  washed  out  by  the  rains 
from  the  twigs  and  branches.  It  also  dies  when  the 
blighted  bark  dries  up.  It  can  only  live  along  the  advanc- 
ing margin  of  the  disease  in  the  thick,  fleshy  bark  or  cam- 
bium which  has  been  invaded  by  the  bacteria,  and  which 
does  not  have  time  to  dry  out  until  the  cool  weather  ap- 
proaches. The  thick  bark  of  the  large  limbs,  branches  and 
root  system  remains  moist  during  a long  period,  especially 
in  the  winter.  By  this  method,  the  importance  of  which 
we  will  show  later,  the  germs  are  able  to  carr\  over,  or  live 
over,  from  one  season  to  another.  As  a matter  of  fact, 
it  is  only  by  this  means  that  the  pear  blight  can  live  over 
during  the  dormant  period  of  the  trees.  The  germs  are 
killed  by  a high  temperature,  they  are  wholly  destroyed 
when  subjected  in  liquid  culture  to  the  temperature  of  55 
degrees  Centigrade  for  ten  minutes.  They  are  wholly 
uninjured,  on  the  other  hand,  by  any  degree  of  cold.  Tem- 
peratures of  40  degrees  Fahrenheit  below  zero  have  no 
effect  whatever.  They  may  be  found  to  be  frozen  at  this 
temperature,  but  thaw  out  immediately  when  plunged  into 
warm  water  and  go  on  with  their  activities  uninjured. 
Cold  retards  their  development,  but  it  also  prolongs  their 
life.  Like  other  vegetable  organisms,  cold  storage  has  the 
effect  of  prolonging  life  over  a long  period  of  time.  In  the 
laboratory  the  organism  lives  for  a relatively  short  time 
at  room  temperatures,  while  if  the  cultures  are  put  into 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


143 


the  ice  box  the  germs  may  live  for  months  providing  the 
culture  medium  does  not  dry  out. 

In  the  life  cycle  of  this  germ,  blossom  blight  may  be 
considered  the  first  step,  at  least,  this  is  the  first  step  in 
its  life  cycle  that  is  noticed  by  the  casual  observer.  For  a 
long  time  it  was  a great  puzzle  where  the  germs  came  from 
that  produced  the  first  blossom  blight  in  the  spring  of  the 
year.  This  one  link  in  the  chain,  where  the  germs  re- 
mained during  the  dormant  season,  was  missing.  No  one 
knew  how  the  first  blossoms  became  infected.  Given  a 
number  of  blossoms  infected,  it  was  comparatively  easy 
to  discover  the  methods  by  which  the  germs  were  carried 
about.  Not  only  in  natural  infections  but  in  those  arti- 
ficially produced  with  pure  cultures,  insects  were  found 
visiting  the  blighted  blossoms.  The  germ  multiplies  in  the 
nectaries  of  the  blossoms  as  readily  as  it  does  in  a culture 
medium,  since  the  nectar  glands  exude  a sugary  solution 
which  furnishes  the  organism  the  necessary  food  supply. 
The  enzyme  or  ferment  given  off  as  a by-product  by  the 
germ  dissolves  the  delicate  cells  beneath,  permitting  the 
germ  to  pass  downward  with  the  greatest  of  ease.  Ordin- 
arily the  entire  pear  tree  is  sealed  up  with  an  air  tight 
and  water  tight  cuticle  composed  of  a thin  layer  of  the 
same  composition  as  cork.  Even  the  breathing  pores  are 
plugged  up  during  the  dormant  season  of  the  tree  so  as 
to  prevent  evaporation  from  the  tissues.  This  cuticle 
keeps  out  the  pear  blight  germ  unless  it  is  injured  or 
broken.  The  nectary  is  not  covered  by  cuticle,  and  is, 
therefore,  an  easy  place  for  the  germs  to  enter.  The 
gummy  exudate  pushes  out  of  the  infected  blossoms,  adding 
to  or  even  taking  the  place  of  the  nectar;  and  honey  bees, 
wild  bees,  wasps,  flies,  and  perhaps  fifty  other  species  of 
insects  visiting  the  pear  blossoms  or  apple  blossoms  carry 
the  germ-infected  material.  When  once  the  insects'  mouth 
parts  and  feet  are  infected,  blossoms  which  it  visits  there- 
after in  turn  become  infected  as  the  insects  drop  off  a few 
germs  into  the  nectaries.  The  blight  virus  being  also  a 
sticky  material  and  usually  requiring  a considerable  mass, 
speaking  from  the  microscopic  standpoint,  to  produce  in- 
fection, is  not  blown  by  the  wind.  Of  course,  the  negative 


144  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

of  such  a proposition  is  hard  to  prove  conclusively,  but 
experiments  have  been  made  to  decide  this  matter  by 
covering  blossoms  with  mosquito  netting  along  the  side  of 
artificially  infected  fiowers,  and  it  was  readily  found  that 
the  uncovered  flower  visited  by  insects  contracted  the 
blight,  while  those  covered  by  bags,  mosquito  netting  and 
other  material  which  kept  out  insects  remained  free  from 
the  disease.  Occasionally,  a humming  bird  visited  the 
infected  blossoms.  This  has  been  observed  in  a number  of  ; 
instances.  Doubtless  birds  get  the  gummy  material  on  thei^ 
feet  and  carry  the  blight  long  distances.  However,  we  i 
look  upon  insect  distribution  as  by  far  the  most  immediate 
means  of  infection,  especially  in  blossoms;  in  carrying  the 
blight  from  flower  to  flower,  tree  to  tree  and  orchard  to 
orchard,  although  doubtless  occasional  long  distance  dis-  ? 
tribution  is  accomplished  by  birds  or  some  other  agencies,  i 
including  man  himself.  After  the  blossoming  period  is 
over,  or  even  before  it  is  entirely  finished,  blight  may  be  i 
found  attacking  the  tender  twigs.  Our  common  insects 
have  been  found  to  be  active  agencies  in  not  only  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  disease,  but  in  puncturing  the  tissues  and  I 
thereby  introducing  the  germs  into  them.  While  it  is  easy 
to  prove  that  insects  cause  some  of  the  infections  of  some 
of  the  twigs,  it  is  not  absolutely  certain  that  they  do  all  the  ; 
innoculating.  Twigs  are  sometimes  found  with  blight 
started  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  or  in  the  tender  bark 
where  no  punctures  can  be  found  on  careful  examinatior  |i 
It  is  possible  that  the  germ  may  enter  in  damp  weather  ^ 
through  growth  cracks  where  the  cuticle  is  ruptured,  ex-  ' 
posing  the  tender  tissues.  I 

That  insects  really  carry  pear  blight  germs  on  their  feet  f 
and  mouth  parts,  I have  proved  by  capturing  these  insects  t 
in  infected  orchards  and  allowing  them  to  walk  about  on  |: 
prepared  culture  plates,  known  as  Petri  dishes,  which  con- 1 
tained  a substance  in  which  germs  might  make  growth. 
In  from  24  to  48  hours  colonies  of  germs  would  be  found 
growing  from  the  points  where  the  insects  walked  upon  : 
the  culture  medium.  By  innoculating  growing  shoots  from 
these  cultures,  typical  cases  of  blight  were  produced. 

In  the  numerous  experiments  which  have  been  made 


I 


JONATHAN 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


145 


atomizing  the  germs  on  the  tissues,  it  has  resulte(3  in  a 
failure  in  most  cases,  except  where  punctures  through  the 
cuticle  have  been  made  by  a pin  point,  or  where  oy  the 
breaking  of  the  leaf  or  some  slight  abrasion  the  skin  has 
been  ruptured,  allowing  the  germ  to  enter. 

There  are,  therefore,  two  main  methods  of  entry  by  the 
germ.  First,  in  the  nectar  of  the  blossom,  and  second,  in 
the  tender  tips  of  growing  twigs  or  water  sprouts.  Blight 
occasionally  enters  by  the  third  method — directly  into  the 
tender,  growing,  fleshy  part,  through  growth  cracks,  al- 
though as  a general  rule  this  method  of  entry  is  compara- 
tively rare.  Sapsuckers  or  woodpeckers  become  infected 
by  puncturing  cases  of  hold-over  blight,  and  afterwards 
visiting  healthy  trees  produce  blight  infection  from  them. 
We  have  several  observations  along  this  line  and  doubtless 
many  more  occur  in  nature.  It  is  even  possible  for  the 
whiffletrees  or  implements  used  in  cultivation  to  transfer 
the  infection;  pruning  tools  are  certainly  a very  frequent 
cause  of  transmitting  the  disease,  especially  during  the 
growing  season. 

Mr.  Waite  states  that  in  Maryland  he  saw  a nursery 
block  of  10,000  Bartlett  pear  trees  completely  destroyed  by 
blight.  This  block,  as  was  determined  by  the  specimens, 
carried  actual  samples  of  hold-over  blight  in  the  stocks. 
When  stocks  were  cut  off  above  the  dormant  buds  in  the 
spring,  the  pruning  tools  became  infected  and  the  disease 
was  transmitted  to  nearly  every  tree  reached  by  the 
pruner.  Instead  of  the  buds  pushing  up,  the  cut  surface 
began  to  gum  and  blight.  The  writer  has  seen  in  certain 
nurseries  in  Nebraska  many  cases  where  nursery  infection 
has  been  brought  about  through  the  use  of  tools  which 
have  been  used  in  cutting  out  blight  infection  in  large 
orchard  trees,  without  previously  disinfecting  them.  Pear 
blight  behaves  in  all  sorts  of  irregular  ways  when  it 
runs  down  the  limbs  and  branches.  Occasionally  a fruit 
spur  blighting  causes  the  disease  to  spread  in  a circular 
spot  an  inch  or  two  in  diameter  on  the  branches.  More 
often  it  is  an  elliptical  spot  extending  lengthwise  of  the 
branch.  It  may  run  down  in  a long  line  from  the  lower 
edge,  making  it  very  difficult  to  save  the  branch  or  even 


146  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

the  tree  by  cutting,  on  account  of  this  narrow  strip  of  the 
disease.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  anticipate  the  variations 
in  behavior  of  the  disease,  because  it  depends  upon  so 
many  different  factors.  It  may  be  well  to  point  out  some 
of  the  factors  controlling  the  habits  of  the  disease  in  order 
that  you  may  see  how  varied  are  the  influences  controlling 
it. 

These  factors  may  be  divided  more  or  less  completely 
into  two  sets.  First,  those  which  govern  infection,  and 
second,  those  which  determine  the  spread  of  the  blight  in 
the  tree  after  infection. 

The  first  factor  is  the  presence  of  the  bacillus.  The  pear 
blight  germ  must  be  present  in  the  orchard  or  must  be 
carried  there  during  the  season  in  order  to  have  the 
blight.  No  matter  how  favorable  the  conditions  may  be, 
unless  the  germ  is  there  the  disease  cannot  develop.  The 
immunity  of  California  and  Oregon  orchards  up  to  recent 
years,  of  course,  is  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  germ 
was  not  there  The  second  factor  is  the  number  of  insect 
visitors.  We  have  pointed  out  that  insects  carry  the  blight 
about.  The  honey  bee  is  one  of  the  most  active  in  carrying 
the  blight  on  the  blossoms.  Other  insects  visit  the  pear 
and  apple  blossoms  and  carry  the  blight  very  widely.  The 
presence  of  some  certain  species  of  insects  as  already  sug- 
gested, has  been  the  means  of  introducing  the  blight  into 
the  twigs  and  branches  or  bodies  of  the  trees.  Not  only 
must  the  insect  be  present  and  the  germs  there  for  them  to 
carry,  but  the  weather  conditions  must  be  favorable  for 
the  activity  of  the  insects  and  to  bring  the  trees  into  proper 
condition  for  infection. 

Flower  visiting  insects  usually  like  sunshiny  weather, 
especially  sunny  weather  following  a moist  season,  which 
allows  many  kinds  to  hatch  out  or  develop  from  the  pupa. 
Young  orchards  are  not  usually  attacked  by  the  blight, 
rather  rarely,  in  fact,  until  they  have  blossomed,  unless 
there  is  a bad  attack  of  blight  in  a pear  or  other  pome 
fruit  orchard  near  at  hand.  There  are  some  cases  of 
young  orchards  which  I have  seen  in  California  and 
Oregon  that  have  blighted  somewhat  seriously  before  they 
had  bloomed,  but  they  were  alongside  badly  blighted 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


147 


pear  orchards.  The  presence  of  water  sprouts  or  spurs 
from  the  French  stock,  on  which  pear  trees  are  mostly 
budded,  often  determines  infection.  In  many  localities  the 
entire  loss  of  the  pear  orchards  has  come  through  the  in- 
fection of  water  sprouts  and  spurs  coming  from  the  crown 
or  roots  of  the  trees.  Perhaps  90  per  cent  of  the  loss  in 
many  of  the  river  orchards  in  the  Sacramento  valley  has 
come  about  through  this  sort  of  infection.  Right  alongside 
of  orchards  which  have  been  seriously  damaged  through 
the  infection  of  water  sprouts  from  the  stock  or  roots  we 
found  thrifty  trees  which  were  budded  on  Le  Compte, 
Winter  Nelis  and  Kieffer  roots;  these  have  not  gone  down 
with  the  disease  through  their  ability  to  resist  the  blight. 
It  has  been  particularly  noticeable  that  Winter  Nelis  roots 
are  very  resistant  to  the  blight.  Cases  have  come  under 
my  observation  where  the  bodies  have  blighted  as  far  as 
the  union  with  the  Winter  Nelis  stock  and  then  stopped. 
If  this  experiment  proves  universal,  it  is  a strong  argument 
in  favor  of  using  the  Kieffer  and  Winter  Nelis  stocks  on 
which  to  graft  the  more  tender  varieties.  Furthermore, 
these  stocks  have  a less  tendency  to  throw  out  sprouts. 

Several  conditions  or  factors  control  the  spread  of  the 
blight  after  it  once  enters  the  tree.  Some  of  these  are 
more  or  less  connected  with  the  conditions  favoring  in- 
fection. The  vigor  of  the  tree  has  a great  deal  to  do  with 
the  amount  of  damage  produced  after  the  blight  once  enters 
it.  Another  fact  which  must  be  borne  in  mind  is  the 
variety  of  the  tree,  whether  apple  or  pear,  or  any  other 
pome  fruit.  All  varieties  are  not  equally  susceptible  under 
similar  conditions,  there  being  in  many  varieties  a certain 
tendency  or  immunity.  The  more  vigorous  and  thrifty  the 
tree,  as  a general  rule,  the  more  seriously  it  is  attacked 
by  the  blight.  The  vigor  itself  is  the  effect  of  various  con- 
ditions, such  as  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  amount  of 
manure  or  of  fertilizer  used,  or  kind  of  cultivation,  soil, 
moisture,  rainfall  or  irrigation,  and  the  presence  of  other 
diseases,  such  as  leaf  blight,  crown  gall,  root  rot,  etc. 

As  a rule,  trees  on  rich  soil  blight  more  readily  than 
trees  which  are  on  poor  soil.  There  are  some  apparent 
exceptions  to  this,  and  there  is  a difference  in  the  behavior 


148  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

of  blight  on  different  soils  in  connection  with  their  fer- 
tility. Alkali  soils  seem  to  favor  the  blight  more  than 
correspondingly  fertile  soils  that  are  not  alkali.  On  the 
other  hand,  trees  may  blight  on  the  acid  soils  of  the 
eastern  states.  Stable  manure  causes  the  trees  to  be  more 
susceptible  to  the  blight  than  those  not  manured.  The  age 
of  the  tree  also  exerts  an  important  influence.  The  older 
and  slower  growing  the  tree  is  the  less  it  is  attacked  by 
blight,  other  things,  of  course,  being  equal.  Exhaustive 
crops  of  fruit  tend  to  consume  the  food  material  of  the 
tree  and  help  to  check  the  blight  to  a certain  extent.  On 
the  other  hand,  when  the  trees  fail  to  fruit  from  unfav- 
orable conditions,  such  as  prolonged  rains  at  the  blossoming 
period,  there  may  not  be  the  ipportunity  for  infection  and 
the  contradiction  to  this  principle  may  be  observed.  From 
observation,  orchardists  know  that  during  rainy  and 
cloudy  weather  insect  visitors,  such  as  bees,  are  very  rarely 
found  working  in  the  blossom.  Since  the  bees  are  the 
principal  distributors  of  the  blight  germs,  it  can  be  readily 
seen  that  if  the  entire  blossoming  period  is  covered  by 
rainy  or  cool  weather  there  is  little  chance  for  very  serious 
and  general  infection,  although  there  may  be  considerable 
hold-over  blight  in  the  vicinity  of  the  blooming  orchards. 

The  style  of  pruning  the  tree  exerts  some  influence,  not 
only  in  the  behavior  of  the  blight,  but  also  on  the  conven- 
ience of  the  orchardist  in  eradicating  the  disease.  The 
least  desirable  form  of  tree  is  the  tall  pyramid,  having  a 
central  leader  with  the  fruit  spurs  on  the  main  trunk  and 
water  sprouts  at  the  base.  In  this  form  of  tree,  any  in- 
fection of  blossoms  or  sprouts  readily  goes  into  the  body, 
making  it  difficult  to  eradicate  the  blight  without  practi- 
cally destroying  the  tree,  or,  at  least,  removing  the  prin- 
cipal bearing  area.  The  most  desirable  form  is  the 
broad  vase-formed  tree,  clean  and  free  from  water  sprouts 
at  the  base,  having  no  fruit  spurs  near  the  main  trunk  and 
leaders,  and  having  lateral  twigs  for  fruit  bearing  at  as 
great  distance  as  possible  from  the  crown  of  the  tree.  Such 
a tree  is  also  in  a very  desirable  form  for  other  reasons,  for 
it  is  easier  to  spray,  easier  to  prune  after  the  top  has 
been  formed,  easier  to  gather  the  fruit,  and  especially 
easier  to  examine  and  keep  free  from  blight. 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


149 


The  weather  at  critical  times,  especially  in  the  spring 
and  sum.mer,  exerts  an  important  influence  on  the  spread 
of  the  blight.  In  fact,  the  weather  influences  dominate 
more  equally  the  infection  than  they  do  the  spreading  of 
the  blight  in  the  trees.  We  recognize  certain  spells  or 
weather  conditions  as  infection  periods,  and  by  following 
carefully  the  relation  of  the  blight  to  the  weather  the 
intelligent  fruit  grower  soon  learns  to  anticipate  these 
difficulties.  In  fact,  it  is  supposed  by  many  that  the  long, 
dry,  hot  summer  of  the  western  states,  especially  the 
Pacific  coast  states,  gives  such  poor  opportunity  for  pear 
blight  that  it  was  not  able  to  exist  under  the  prevailing 
conditions.  Of  course,  we  now  know  that  this  is  a fallacy, 
for,  as  soon  as  the  germ  was  introduced,  it  produced  the 
disease  abundantly.  Dry  sunshine,  while  favorable  to  the 
orchards,  tends  to  produce  a firm,  healthy  growth  of  the 
tree  and  prevent  infection  periods.  However,  constant 
and  intense  sunlight  produces  another  result  which  may 
be  noted  here.  Pome  fruits,  as  well  as  other  fruits,  under 
the  influence  of  dry,  but  sunshiny  weather,  carry  on  their 
processes  of  growth  and  assimilation  in  the  very  best 
possible  manner.  The  study  of  blight  throughout  the  west 
shows  that  where  irrigation  is  used  on  the  one  hand,  and 
where  there  is  a natural  supply  of  water  on  the  other 
hand,  and  where  the  orchards  are  fairly  well  supplied  with 
water  and  kept  in  a continual  state  of  high  nutrition  by 
the  perpetual  and  uniform  sunshine,  the  trees  are  pecu- 
liarly susceptible  to  the  disease.  In  the  lower  Sacramento 
valley  in  California  and  in  the  Rogue  River  valley  where 
irrigation  is  not  resorted  to,  we  find  that  there  is  a great 
deal  of  soil  moisture,  and  in  many  favored  spots,  the  water 
table  is  only  a few  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Under  proper  cutivation,  where  a dust  mulch  prevents 
evaporation  of  the  soil  moisture,  we  find  that  during  even 
the  dryest  seasons  the  roots  of  the  trees  are  amply  sup- 
plied with  water.  On  the  other  hand,  we  also  find  places 
where  the  water  table  is  too  near  the  surface,  and  in  this 
case  the  trees  are  in  a drowned  condition;  consequently, 
perfect  assimilation  does  not  go  on,  and  for  this  reason, 
such  trees,  although  situated  in  rich,  nitrogenous  soils,  do 


150  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

not  blight  badly.  Where  the  trees  are  growing  at  their 
best,  the  blight  germ  feeds  on  the  rich  sugars  and  starches 
of  the  sap,  so  that  the  conditions  which  favor  the  growth 
and  production  of  the  fruit  also  tends  to  favor  the  germ; 
for  we  must  remember  that  the  germ  is  itself  a plant,  de- 
pending upon  the  rich  food  supplied  by  the  tree  for  its 
best  growth.  The  fleshy  bark  of  trees  grown  under  con- 
stant sunshine,  especially  those  of  the  Paciflc  coast,  seem 
to  be  richer  and  thicker  than  in  the  eastern  states,  and 
naturally  affords  an  unusually  good  feeding  ground  for  the 
pear  blight  bacillus.  This  rich,  fleshy  bark  also  tends  to 
hold  over  the  germ  during  the  dormant  season  in  a much 
more  serious  way  than  the  thinner  bark  of  trees  grown 
under  other  conditions.  Cloudy,  rainy  weather,  therefore, 
while  favoring  infection,  sometimes  results  in  a starved 
condition  of  the  tree,  which,  of  course,  is  especially  un- 
favorable to  the  pear  blight  germ.  Trees  grown  so  as  to 
produce  a minimum  growth  naturally  are  short  of  plant 
food,  and,  of  course,  do  not  favor  the  pear  blight  germ, 
even  though  it  should  enter  the  tissues.  Every  physiolo- 
gist knows  that  in  order  that  a green  plant  may  form 
starch  in  its  foliage  the  action  of  sunlight  is  required. 
The  more  intense  the  sunlight  the  more  rapidly  the  forma- 
tion of  starch  goes  on.  In  cloudy,  dark  weather,  very  little 
starch  is  made  or  elaborated  in  the  leaves.  Of  course,  we 
know  that  the  tree  does  not  make  use  of  its  starch  as  such, 
but,  through  the  action  of  a diastatic  ferment  or  enzyme, 
the  starch  is  changed  into  sugar,  which  is  translocated  to 
all  parts  of  the  tree  by  osmotic  action,  that  is,  through 
the  sap.  It  is  this  rich  sap,  which  is  mostly  sugar,  that 
the  pear  blight  germ  feeds  upon.  The  more  sugar,  the 
more  intense  the  destructive  action  of  the  germ.  The 
very  regular  growth  of  the  trees  in  the  Rocky  Mountain 
and  Paciflc  Coast  orchards  tends  to  keep  the  pear  blight 
germ  continually  at  work,  unless  checked  by  prompt  and 
thorough  eradication.  In  the  eastern  orchards,  especially 
with  dwarf  pears,  which  make  their  growth  early  in  the 
season,  a heavy  rain,  if  accompanied  by  a day  or  two  of 
cool,  cloudy  weather,  will  cause  the  trees  to  close  up  their 
terminal  buds. 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


151 


Before  leaving  the  chapter  on  weather  conditions,  it 
may  be  well  to  point  out  more  fully  the  reasons  why  serious 
outbreaks  of  blight  occur  after  showers  or  thunder  storms. 
It  has  been  the  common  belief  that  static  discharges  of  at- 
mospheric electricity  have  a considerable  influence  upon 
such  outbreaks.  This,  of  course,  is  mere  fancy  and  has  no 
scientific  significance  whatever.  Everyone  knows  that  a 
seed  planted  in  dry  soil  cannot  germinate  unless  moisture 
is  applied  to  it,  either  artificially  or  naturally.  Now,  sup- 
posing a thunder  storm  comes  along  with  a heavy  precipi- 
tation, or  at  least  sufficient  precipitation  to  moisten  the 
soil  about  the  seed;  what  happens?  The  question  is  so 
simple  that  a child  in  the  primary  grade  would  not  hesi- 
tate in  answering  it.  Of  course,  the  seed  starts  into 
growth,  the  rapidity  of  its  growth  depending  upon  the 
temperature  following  the  rainfall.  Now,  was  it  the  rain- 
fall or  the  thunder  and  lightning  that  caused  the  seed  to 
germinate?  No,  the  rainfall  and  the  warmth,  and  nothing 
else.  It  has  been  explained  that  a germ  or  bacterium  is 
also  a plant  dependent  upon  moisture  and  heat  for  its 
growth.  In  a dry  season  an  enormous  number  of  infections 
may  take  place,  but  the  very  fact  that  the  season  is  dry 
and  warm  accounts  for  the  fact  that  these  infections  fail; 
just  the  same  as  in  a very  dry  season  a very  large  per- 
centage of  corn,  or  any  other  seed  put  into  dry  ground, 
will  fail  to  germinate  and  we  have  an  occasional  plant 
coming  up,  just  as  we  find  in  the  case  of  blight,  only  a few 
infections  appearing.  Everybody  knows  that  after  a rain 
every  vegetable  starts  into  rapid  growth  providing  the 
weather  is  warm.  Now,  rapid  growth  in  a pear  or  apple 
tree  means  nothing  more  or  less  than  an  enormous  addi- 
tion of  water,  plus  food  from  soil  and  air  to  it.  Here  we 
have  conditions  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  blight  germ 
which  uses  the  pear  or  apple  as  its  soil  from  which  it 
draws  its  water  supply  and  its  necessary  food;  namely, 
starch  and  sugar.  Just  preceding  a heavy  rainfall,  the 
germs  may  have  been  distributed  very  widely.  Had  dry 
weather  continued  the  fact  that  the  germ  had  become 
widely  distributed  would  not  have  become  apparent  because 
countless  infections  would  not  have  taken.  In  very  dry 


152 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


v/eather,  the  nectaries  of  blossoms  soon  dry,  and  unless 
germs  have  gained  a strong  foothold  before  drying  takes 
place  no  apparent  infection  results.  The  above  explana- 
tion should  suffice  to  show  that  the  thunder  and  lightning 
theory  has  no  bearing  whatever  on  the  disease  known  as 
pear  blight.  Consider  the  germ  in  the  light  of  a seed 
whose  germination  is  dependent  upon  the  same  ecological 
conditions  for  all  of  its  growth  activities. 

To  one  who  knows  something  of  the  theory  of  the  dis- 
ease, the  matter  of  eradication  often  seems  very  simple.  It 
is  usually  a very  easy  thing  to  write  about  the  experiences 
of  others  and  to  tell  in  considerable  detail  how  blight 
should  be  eradicated  and  controlled.  The  actual  field  work 
is  very  difficult  and  tedious,  and  a matter  of  days  and 
months  of  training  only  will  make  an  expert  field  man. 
No  one  can  become  expert  after  a few  hours’  work,  even 
under  competent  instruction  given  by  a trained  man  having 
had  years  of  experience.  We  do  find  people,  however,  who 
are  able  to  write  and  instruct  without  having  had  any  ex- 
perience whatever.  To  the  initiated,  as  well  as  the  unin- 
itiated, let  me  say  that  the  eradication  of  pear  blight  is 
one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  known  to  plant  patho- 
logists. Let  no  one  say  that  it  is  a simple  thing.  It  is 
difficult,  very  difficult.  The  reason  for  this  difficulty  is 
that  we  are  dealing  with  a considerable  amount  of  ignor- 
ance and  unbelief;  again,  few  farmers  who  have  not  had 
a bacteriologist’s  training,  realize  the  peculiar  relation  ex- 
isting between  the  organism  causing  the  disease  and  the 
host  of  plants.  They  fail  to  see  that  this  relation  is  prac- 
tically the  same  as  that  which  exists  between  the  germ  of 
tuberculosis  and  man.  On  the  one  hand,  antiseptic  pre- 
cautions, and  the  removal  of  infections  seems  unimportant; 
on  the  other  hand,  however,  long  experience  with  this 
dread  human  disease  instills  a sort  of  fear,  even  though 
the  true  cause  may  not  be  fully  comprehended.  If  very 
fruitgrower  could  be  made  to  feel  that  fruit  trees  are  living 
things  very  much  in  the  same  sense  as  themselves,  and  that 
the  parasites  attacking  them  should  be  viewed  in  a cor- 
responding light  for  both,  I am  sure  the  whole  matter  of 
education  would  be  solved. 


Manual  of  Horticulture,  Idalio. 
Courtesy  of  “Itettcu-  Fruit.” 


Pr.ATF  XXVI. 


1 — Wrong  form  of  pear  tree.  The 
leader  renders  it  difficult  to 
te  or  control  Idight.  The  open 
lead  is  the  proper  type  of  tree.  (Pho- 
tograph hy  the  author). 


3 — A liad  crown  infecti'm  on 
nberg  aj)ple,  due  to  wat'O-  sprout. 
attempt  at  working  out  the  inftw- 
Note  ooze  running  down  (lie  body 
the  part  cut  out.  (Photograph 
y the  author). 


W 

L/ 

/ 

Figure  2 — The  result  of  growing  ;i  tree 
with  the  central  leader.  Klight  infec- 
tion made  it  necessary  to  reim.'Ve  prac- 
tically the  entire  hear'ing  n rea  of  the 
tree.  The  limlis  left  are  too  long  and 
weak.  (Photograi)h  hy  tim  author!. 


Figure  4- — Body  infection  of  !3artlett,  due 
to  water  sprouts.  First  atteinjit  io  eradi- 
cate the  blight  unsuccessful,  and  it  was 
necessary  to  peel  the  bark  and  <“;imhium 
at  a greater  distance.  (Photograph  by 
the  author). 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


153 


The  treatment  for  pear  blight,  or  rather  the  methods 
for  controlling  it,  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  primary 
and  secondary.  The  primary  method  of  treating  this  dis- 
ease consists  of  cutting  out  thoroughly  and  antiseptically 
the  hold-over  blight  during  the  dormant  season  of  the 
trees — that  is,  during  the  fall  and  winter.  It  has  been 
explained  that  the  hold-over  blight  may  be  found  in  the 
larger  limbs,  the  trunk  and  even  the  root  system.  These 
hold-over  cases  have  become  such  through  the  various 
means  of  infection  pointed  out  in  a previous  chapter, 
namely,  through  blossoms,  buds  or  water  sprouts,  which 
have  become  infected  and  through  which  the  blight  has 
gained  entrance  to  the  fleshy  bark  and  cambium  of  the 
bodies  and  roots.  The  other  methods  of  entrance,  as 
pointed  out  before,  are  through  growth  cracks,  crown  galls, 
insect  and  bird  punctures,  or  any  other  way  by  which  the 
epidermis  may  be  broken  so  as  to  expose  the  tissues  be- 
neath. It  has  also  been  shown  that  the  pruning  knife  or 
other  orchard  instruments  and  implements  may  be  the 
means  of  spreading  the  disease.  If  the  work  of  removing 
hold-over  cases  is  done  thoroughly  it  leaves  no  opportunity 
for  additional  advantages  from  any  other  secondary  meth- 
od to  be  given  later. 

Rem.ember  that  the  important  thing  is  the  removal  of 
the  source,  or  what  will  be  the  source  of  infection  the  fol- 
lowing year.  In  the  case  of  the  pear  or  apple  it  is  impor- 
tant that  this  work  be  done  as  skillfully  as  the  work  of  a 
surgeon  in  removing  a member  infected  with  blood  poison. 
Everyone  realizes  the  attention  given  to  the  source  of  a> 
city’s  water  supply,  and  it  may  be  said  that  the  death  rate 
is  very  largely  an  index  to  its  condition.  In  the  same  sense, 
the  attention  given  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  orchards 
of  any  community  is  an  index  of  the  death  rate  of  the 
orchards.  Of  course,  the  cutting  out  of  hold-over  blight 
must  be  done,  not  alone  in  a single  orchard,  but  the  work 
should  be  general  and  thorough  throughout  the  entire  area, 
such  as  an  inclosed  valley  or  even,  for  better  work,  an  en- 
tire state.  Complete  eradication  of  pear  blight  from  such 
a large  area  is,  of  course,  very  difficult,  but  not  impossible. 
However,  the  fewer  hold-over  cases  that  may  be  missed 


154  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

will  result  in  fewer  cases  of  infection  later  in  the  spring 
and  summer.  As  may  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  factors 
influencing  the  disease,  the  presence  of  the  germ  is  of 
primary  importance.  If  the  pear  blight  germ  is  not  pres- 
ent in  the  orchard  there  can  be  no  blight,  no  matter  what 
the  weather  conditions  may  be.  The  orchards  of  California 
existed  for  twenty-five  years  with  varying  climatic  condi- 
tions, and  no  one  ever  heard  of  blight  in  those  orchards 
until  the  germ  was  introduced. 

The  regular  development  of  the  disease  has  been 
pointed  out  by  which  it  runs  down  on  one  side  of  the  limb 
or  body  and  not  on  the  other;  this  often  leads  to  failures 
in  eradicating  the  blight  from  orchards.  While  the  dis- 
ease in  the  top  is  very  easy  to  handle  and  anyone  who  looks 
at  all  closely  cannot  only  detect  it,  but  can  readily  remove 
the  infected  branches;  the  disease  on  the  bodies  and  in  the 
root  system  is  not  only  hard  to  see,  but  it  is  often  difficult 
to  find  it,  especially  on  old  trees  where  the  crowns  and 
bodies  are  covered  with  rough  bark.  It  may  be  said  here 
that  the  removal  and  the  detection  of  hold-over  in  pear 
trees  is  not  nearly  so  difficult  as  is  the  case  in  the  apple 
and  the  quince.  The  Spitzenberg  apple  is  probably  the 
worst  variety,  if  not  the  worst  species  of  the  pome  family, 
in  which  to  detect  hold-over  and  to  effectively  remove  it. 

The  gum  exudate,  when  it  is  present,  gives  a clue  to 
many  otherwise  obscure  cases.  However,  in  cases  of  late 
fall  and  summer  infections,  the  lesions  may  be  so  small  as 
to  produce  no  exudate  or  give  any  other  evidence  of  in- 
fection. A dead  water  sprout  or  fruit  spur,  no  matter 
how  tiny  it  may  be,  leads  to  the  detection  of  a case.  Some- 
times these  have  been  broken  off  in  cultivation  or  care- 
lessly cut  off  without  following  up  the  infection  at  the  base. 
Very  often  a water  sprout  which  has  come  up  from  the 
root  system  at  some  distance  from  the  base  of  the  tree, 
becomes  infected,  and  is  later  removed  by  cultivation;  but 
the  infection  passes  on  up  the  infected  root,  finally  in- 
volving the  entire  root  system.  Sometimes  there  is  infec- 
tion without  a water  sprout  or  bud  at  all,  and  such  cases 
are  the  hardest  to  detect  unless  some  ooze  has  exuded. 
Such  infections  come  about  through  insect  punctures  and 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


155 


growth  cracks  by  means  of  which  the  germ  has  been  in- 
troduced. Where  there  is  a large  amount  of  blight  to  be 
removed  from  the  orchard,  necessitating  a great  deal  of 
labor,  it  has  proven  necessary  in  every  case  to  go  over  the 
orchard  critically,  or  perhaps  we  may  say  leisurely,  on  a 
dry,  sunshiny  day  when  there  is  good  light,  and  find  the 
few  cases  that  have  been  missed  on  the  first  inspection. 
No  matter  how  thorough  the  work,  this  careful  method  of 
inspection  has  proved  extremely  important.  Not  only 
should  the  work  be  inspected  immediately  following  the 
general  clean-up,  but  someone  else  with  .keen,  well-trained 
eyes  should  look  over  the  trees  several  times  during  the 
winter.  A special  effort  should  be  made  to  find  out  when 
there  is  a new  exudation  of  ooze.  This  may  follow  any 
warm,  mild  spell  in  the  winter,  when  there  is  a wide  range 
between  the  day  and  night  temperature.  Such  conditions 
are  known  to  affect  the  flow  of  sap  in  the  sugar  maple 
and  other  trees.  A final  inspection  should  be  made  just 
before  blossoming  time  to  catch  any  hold-over  blight  the 
last  moment,  in  case  it  has  been  overlooked  before. 

After  the  blossoming  period  has  passed  so  that  the 
blight  has  had  time  to  develop,  if  a colony  of  blight  is 
found  in  the  orchard,  careful  examination  of  this  colony 
will  generally  result  in  the  finding  of  a case  of  hold-over 
blight  in  the  center  and  from  which  all  trouble  may  be 
traced.  During  the  first  year's  work,  those  who  are  just 
learning  how  to  eradicate  blight  will  probably  miss  a good 
many  cases;  however,  after  practice,  they  usually  become 
keener  and  rarely  miss  any.  In  fact,  I have  seen  men  who 
from  the  very  first  were  able  to  do  excellent  work,  but, 
like  other  jobs  which  require  careful  work  and  a sharp 
eye,  relatively  few  men  are  capable  of  making  first-class 
inspectors.  In  many  of  the  large  orchards  where  the 
question  of  efficient  labor  is  serious  and  where  all  sorts  of 
tramp  and  other  low-class  labor  has  been  employed,  ab- 
solute failures  in  blight  control  have  generally  resulted.  As 
I have  stated  before,  a tramp,  or,  for  that  matter,  even  the 
better  sort  of  laborer,  cannot  be  thoroughly  schooled  in 
careful  work  of  this  kind  within  the  space  of  a day  or  two. 
In  every  event,  the  best  and  most  careful  men  should  be 


156  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

placed  in  charge  of  work  of  this  kind.  It  is  almost  need- 
less to  say  that  the  breaking  up  of  the  larger  tracts  into 
smaller  ones  of,  say,  five  or  ten  acres,  will  largely  solve 
the  problem  of  blight  control.  When  this  is  done  each 
tract  will  have  close,  personal  supervision,  and  the  details 
of  eradicating  the  blight,  as  well  as  keeping  it  under  con- 
trol, will  fall  to  the  owner.  It  is  a common  mistake  to 
think  that  the  matter  of  eradication  and  control  rests  with 
the  inspector  alone.  An  inspector  must  have  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the  entire  district.  I do  not  know  of  any  one  who 
would  ask  an  inspector  to  assume  the  matter  of  cultivation, 
pruning  or  any  other  of  the  regular  orchard  practices;  so 
why  should  an  inspector  be  asked  to  do  the  actual  work  of 
blight  eradication?  The  inspector  is,  in  the  first  place,  an 
instructor,  and  in  the  second  place,  the  one  to  enforce  the 
horticultural  laws,  but  he  is  no  common  hired  man. 

It  must  be  understood  from  the  very  beginning  that 
there  is  no  spray-cure  or  remedy  for  blight.  Being  a 
bacterial  disease,  and  once  the  germ  has  gained  entrance 
to  the  bark  tissues  and  the  cambium  layer  by  any  means 
whatever,  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  any  external  applica- 
tion in  the  way  of  a spray  or  wash  could  not  be  effective. 
There  is  but  one  thing  to  do  after  infection  has  started, 
and  that  is  to  remove,  by  cutting,  the  affected  parts.  In 
other  words,  the  operation  is  purely  surgical.  In  all  of  the 
cutting  a strong  disinfectant  should  be  used  to  wipe  off  the 
tools  after  cutting  into  the  blight  as  well  as  to  wash  off 
the  wounds  made  by  the  instruments ; otherwise,  it  is 
possible  to  introduce  the  germ  into  the  cut  surface  and 
to  carry  it  from  tree  to  tree  on  the  pruning  tools.  In  the 
majority  of  cases,  in  dry  weather,  infection  would  not 
result  from  the  use  of  pruning  tools,  even  though  they 
were  not  disinfected,  but  it  is  never  a wise  plan  to  take  a 
chance.  In  the  late  summer  or  early  fall,  when  the  ex- 
huberant  growing  season  is  over,  the  chances  for  infection 
by  the  use  of  unclean  tools  are  not  so  great;  however,  it 
has  been  determined  by  numerous  experiments  that  blight 
punctured  into  the  fresh  bark  in  the  fall  may  remain  semi- 
dorman  through  the  winter  and  may  result  in  a fine  case 
of  hold-over  blight  the  following  spring.  In  working  out 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


157 


blight  as  much  care  should  be  used  to  prevent  accidental 
inoculation  and  infection  as  a surgeon  would  use  in  per- 
forming a major  operation. 

For  disinfecting  the  cut  surfaces  and  the  instruments, 
the  best  thing  to  use  is  a solution  of  corrosive  sublimate, 
or  bichloride  of  mercury,  in  water,  one  part  to  one  thous- 
and. It  is  often  advisable  to  use  the  disinfectant  a little 
stronger,  and  there  is  no  danger  in  using  one  to  five  hun- 
dred. Tablets  may  be  obtained  from  any  drug  store,  and 
the  number  to  be  used  to  produce  any  strength  of  solution 
is  usually  indicated  upon  the  bottle.  To  be  sure  that  no 
mistake  is  made,  ask  the  druggist  how  many  tablets  to 
use  to  produce  a solution  of  desired  strength.  When  pos- 
sible, use  rain  water,  as  the  slightly  alkaline  waters  in  dry 
countries  tend  to  precipitate  the  poisonous  mercurial  com- 
pound. Also  use  a glass  or  non-metallic  container,  as  a 
tin  can  or  other  metal  container  may  react  on  the  disin- 
fectant, and  remove  the  poisonous  principle.  Corrosive 
sublimate  kills  the  pear  blight  germ  in  solutions  in  water 
when  it  is  diluted  to  one  part  to  10,000,  therefore,  the 
above  formulse  are  sufficiently  strong  and  well  within  the 
limits.  While  there  are  other  disinfectants  that  may  be 
used,  bichloride  of  mercury  is  by  far  the  cheapest,  and 
there  is  nothing  gained  by  using  anything  else.  The  use 
of  kerosene,  gasoline,  and  such  like,  is  certainly  not  per- 
missible. Even  carbolic  acid  is  distinctly  inferior  to  cor- 
rosive sublimate  and,  besides,  its  noxious  smell  and  burn- 
ing tendency  do  not  warrant  its  use.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  corrosive  sublimate  is  a deadly  poison 
when  taken  internally,  and  the  bottle  or  container  should 
be  plainly  marked  poison.  Applied  externally  to  wounds, 
or  upon  the  hands,  it  will  cause  no  injury,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  will  as  readily  disinfect  as  in  the  case  of  the 
tools  and  cut  limbs.  The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  in 
emptying  the  bottles  containing  the  solution  when  re- 
turning to  the  house,  or  otherwise  keeping  both  the  bottle 
and  solution  away  from  children  or  unsuspecting  persons. 
As  indicated  before,  there  is  no  danger  in  getting  the 
solution  on  the  hands;  in  fact,  a cut  or  wound  should  be 
treated  with  it  to  prevent  bacterial  infection  which  might 


158  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

result  in  blood  poisoning.  It  should  be  understood,  how- 
ever, that  the  bacteria  of  pear  blight  are  not  pathogenic 
to  man;  that  is  to  say,  the  germ  can  produce  no  evil  effects 
even  if  introduced  into  the  human  system.  It  is  a good 
plan  to  use  a sponge,  which,  if  fastened  by  a string  about 
two  feet  in  length  and  tied  to  one’s  clothing,  is  always 
handy  when  it  is  necessary  to  wipe  the  pruning  tools  and 
the  cut  surfaces  of  trees.  Some  operators  tie  a sponge 
by  a very  short  string  to  the  wrist,  and  this  is  probably 
the  most  convenient  way  to  use  it.  An  inch  or  three-quar- 
ters-inch  carpenter’s  gouge  is  also  an  excellent  tool  in  the 
makeup  of  a worker’s  outfit.  With  it  a small  chip  may  be 
taken  out  of  the  rough  bark  in  inspecting  large  trees,  and  be- 
sides, it  is  a very  handy  tool  in  working  the  blight  out  of 
difficult  places  where  ordinary  tools  cannot  be  so  easily 
used.  In  inspecting  large  trees,  whether  apple  or  pear, 
the  gouge  must  be  used  to  examine  the  bodies  and  the 
crowns.  Unless  this  is  done,  cases  of  hold-over  will  cer- 
tainly be  missed.  In  large,  rough-barked  trees,  a chip 
should  be  taken  out  at  intervals  of  about  two  inches  all 
around  the  crown,  as  well  as  higher  up  on  the  body.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  go  below  the  outer  layer  of  soft  bark 
tissue,  and  it  is  quite  unnecessary  to  cut  as  far  as  the 
wood.  When  the  chip  is  taken  out,  if  the  bark  tissue 
presents  a water-soaked  appearance,  or  if  it  is  of  a red  or 
perhaps  bright  red  color,  it  is  almost  certain  that  the  body 
is  infected.  When  a point  of  infection  is  found,  it  should 
be  followed  up  so  as  to  determine  the  extent  to  which  the 
infection  has  run.  If  careful  work  of  this  kind  is  done,  no 
hold-over  will  escape  detection. 

It  is  a good  plan,  when  ignorant  pruners  are  in  the 
orchard,  to  make  them  disinfect  in  the  general  pruning. 
As  a rule,  I would  suggest  that  eradication  of  blight  precede 
the  general  pruning.  A special  set  of  skilled  help  should 
do  this  work  and  then  the  ordinary  pruner  may  follow.  Even 
in  ordinary  pruning  it  is  a safe  plan  to  disinfect  when 
leaving  each  tree  in  order  to  avoid  carrying  the  disease  in 
case  the  pruner  has  cut  into  an  overlooked  case  of  the 
blight.  There  is  a question  as  to  what  to  do  when  the 
blight  is  found  running  down  the  bodies  and  into  the  roots 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


159 


of  trees.  Where  the  disease  occurs  on  limbs  it  can  be 
readily  sawed  off,  as  the  removal  of  even  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  twigs  and  the  branches  by  no  means  entirely 
destroys  the  value  of  the  tree.  The  tree  will  push  its  nev/ 
top  vigorously,  and  in  two  or  three  years  be  in  full  bear- 
ing again.  Where  the  blight  has  run  past  the  main  forks, 
however,  a serious  question  is  involved.  Where  inefficient, 
unskilled  labor  has  to  be  used  and  where  there  is  but  little 
blight  to  work  out,  we  advise  pulling  out  all  trees  where 
it  has  run  down  the  bodies,  or  has  infected  the  root 
system.  Many  growers,  when  the  matter  is  explained  to 
them,  condemn  such  trees  and  root  them  out,  and  thus,  of 
course,  simplify  the  matter.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
possible  to  effect  an  eradication  of  the  blight  by  carefully 
cutting  out  the  bark,  and  even  the  discolored  wood,  en- 
tirely beyond  the  limits  of  the  infection.  An  imch  or  two 
at  the  side,  and  three  to  six  inches  at  the  bottom  and  top 
of  the  infection,  may  be  regarded  as  safe  if  done  during 
the  winter.  However,  such  cutting  will  not  do  during  the 
spring  or  summer  when  the  sap  is  flowing  rapidly.  Such 
work  invariably  results  in  missing  many  cases.  It  is  never 
a good  plan  to  leave  the  matter  of  working  out  hold-over 
blight  until  after  the  sap  begins  to  flow;  the  best  time  to 
do  this,  and  do  it  successfully,  is  during  the  dormant 
period.  However,  I do  not  mean  to  say  that  hold-over  may 
not  be  removed  at  any  time,  but  I do  mean  to  say  the 
chances  for  successful  operation  are  very  much  less,  and 
the  amount  of  cutting  necessary  is  always  much  greater 
and  more  destructive  to  the  appearance  and  health  of  the 
tree.  As  a general  principle,  we  believe  in  drawing  the 
line  on  those  cases  where  the  blight  has  gone  below  the 
crown  and  into  the  root  system.  Even  here,  however,  it 
is  possible  to  dig  away  the  soil  and  follow  up  the  blight 
on  the  roots.  A tree  should  never  be  considered  as  wholly 
lost  where  skilled  labor  may  be  had,  and  where  the  body  is 
not  completely  girdled  or  where  the  root  system  is  not  too 
badly  involved.  Where  a large  portion  of  the  bark  must  be 
removed  from  the  body,  leaving  only  a small  portion  to 
carry  sap,  bridge  grafting  may  be  resorted  to  to  fill  in 
the  part  cut  away.  If  this  is  well  done,  and  if  the  bared 


160  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

wood  has  been  protected  by  a white  lead  paint,  a new 
bark  covering  may  be  grown.  This  has  been  done  in  a very 
successful  way  in  several  instances.  In  case  a tree  has 
set  a heavy  crop  of  buds  for  the  next  year,  this  plan  will 
evenutally  help  to  carry  the  fruit  crop. 

In  case  a part  of  the  root  system,  as  well  as  the  bark 
and  cambium  above,  must  be  removed,  the  parts  removed 
may  be  eventually  filled  in  by  planting  good  young  trees 
from  the  nursery  row,  setting  the  roots  well  down  and 
grafting  them  into  the  healthy  tissues  above.  These  trees 
will  tend  to  grow  together  and  finally  fill  up  the  portion 
cut  away.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  that  the  thrifty 
sprouts  from  these  young  trees  do  not  become  affected  with 
blight. 

Summer  cutting  intelligently  applied  may  do  a great 
deal  of  good  in  saving  trees  which  would  otherwise  be 
lost.  This  is  especially  advisable  where  there  is  only  a lit- 
tle blight  in  the  orchard  (by  this  I mean  to  say  that  unless 
the  infection  is  so  serious  as  to  necessitate  the  destruction 
of  the  entire  tree)  and  it  should  always  be  practiced.  The 
dry  summer  weather  of  most  of  the  Pacific  coast  country, 
especially  from  southern  Oregon  southward,  is  certainly 
not  favorable  for  new  infections,  but  occasionally  spring 
rains  occur  rather  late,  and  sometimes  extend  into  the 
summer  and  after  the  blossoming  time.  Until  the  present 
year  such  has  not  occurred  in  southern  Oregon,  but  the 
past  spring  has  had  several  infection  periods  in  which 
conditions  have  been  extremely  favorable  to  the  develop- 
ment and  spread  of  the  disease.  Under  eastern  con- 
ditions, or  where  excessive  spring  and  summer  rains  are 
the  rule,  summer  cutting  is  only  half  successful,  and  has, 
therefore,  been  condemned  by  most  pear  and  apple  or- 
chardists  as  a failure.  Summer  cutting  is  a failure,  or  is 
made  apparently  so  by  the  fact  that  new  infections,  invis- 
ible at  the  time  the  work  is  done,  may  develop  in  a few 
days  so  that  a week  after  the  most  thorough  cutting  out 
of  the  blight  a new  crop  of  infection  is  found  thriving. 
Another  source  of  difficulty  in  the  spring  or  summer  time 
arises  from  the  rapid  extension  of  the  blight  infection  in 
the  branches  of  varieties  that  are  very  susceptible  to  the 


Manual  of  Horticulture,  Idaho. 
Courtesy  of  “Better  Fruit.” 


PLATE  XXVII. 


l-hg-ure  1 — Bartlett  pear  tree  showing  t!ie 
hlig'ht  eradicated  from  the  Itody.  It 
was  necessary  to  cut  part  of  the  root 
system  away.  Tins  tree  is  callable  of 
l)earing  a normal  crop.  (Original  photo- 
graph by  the  author). 


Flguia-  ?,  Ci'own  gall  on  hT’anch  of  Rpilz- 
etihcrg  aiti)lc,  showing  pear  blight  infec- 
tion. Xotc  the  ooze  coming  out  both 
^ides  of  the  crown  gall.  (Original  pho- 
tograph by  the  author). 


Figure  2 — A l)ad  infection  of  the  body 
and  root  system.  Only  a small  part  of 
the  root  system  left.  The  tree  will  c )n- 
tinue  to  bear  fruit.  (Photograph  by  the 
author). 


Figure  4 — Spitzenberg  infected  wnth  pear 
blight.  Note  the  tw'o  streams  of  ooze 
running  down  the  body.  (Original  pho- 
tograph by  the  author). 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


161 


disease.  Sometimes,  especially  where  the  infection  has 
reached  a large  leader  or  the  body,  the  germs  often  reach 
a foot  or  two  beyond  the  discoloration,  as  the  disease  is 
spreading  so  rapidly  that  the  bark  has  not  had  time  to  dis- 
color sufficiently  to  be  detected;  therefore,  in  summer  cut- 
ting the  removal  of  the  infection  must  be  at  a greater 
distance  from  the  point  of  infection  than  in  fall  and  winter 
work.  Experienced  men  can  judge  somewhat  of  the  dis- 
tance by  the  rapidity  with  which  the  stained  bark  blends 
off  into  the  normal  bark.  Furthermore,  a reddish  streak 
will  often  be  apparent  in  the  cambium  and  young  wood, 
and  by  following  it  up,  a clue  may  be  had  as  to  the  possible 
trend  of  the  blight.  The  greater  the  distance  in  which  the 
blending  takes  place  the  lower  the  cut  must  be  made,  and 
conversely.  Disinfection  is  more  important  in  summer 
cutting  than  in  winter  cutting,  and,  although  in  the  dry 
coast  climate  the  sunlight  and  dry  atmosphere  will  usually 
take  care  of  most  of  the  germs  accidentally  left  on  cut 
surfaces,  it  is  by  no  means  true  that  infection  may  not 
take  place  from  such  cases.  Furthermore,  a foggy  morn- 
ing following  the  cutting  might  spoil  the  whole  procedure, 
so  the  only  safe  way  is  to  always  disinfect.  In  a recent 
bulletin  published  by  one  of  the  eastern  agricultural  col- 
leges the  recommendation  is  made  to  “disinfect  the  cut 
or  wound  and  not  the  tools.”  This  is  one  of  the  worst 
mistakes  that  could  be  made,  and  shows  that  the  author 
has  never  had  any  practical  experience  in  fighting  the  dis- 
ease. Often  in  using  the  tools,  accidental  cuts  or  punctures 
are  made,  and  it  may  happen  that  infection  may  be  pro- 
duced by  them.  As  to  the  choice  of  a disinfectant,  permit 
me  to  state  once  more  that  there  is  nothing  cheaper  nor 
better  than  bichloride  of  mercury,  and  any  substitute  for 
it  should  not  be  considered.  Always  use  the  proper 
strength,  one  to  1,000,  or  even  stronger,  and  accept  no 
substitutes.  Do  the  work  of  summer  cutting  of  blight 
with  as  great  care  as  possible;  if  this  is  not  done  you  may 
reasonably  expect  to  do  it  all  over  again,  and  perhaps 
lose  some  very  valuable  trees. 

I notice  in  a bulletin  published  by  the  Oregon  Agricul- 
tural College  the  following  statement:  “Experience  has 


162  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

shown  that  it  is  of  little  permanent  value  to  cut  out  the 
fruit  spurs  and  twig  blight  as  they  appear/’  This  state- 
ment is  merely  qualified  by  saying  that  “Unless  these  forms 
of  the  disease  extend  into  the  branches  on  which  they 
occur,  and  a canker  is  formed,  the  disease  naturally  be- 
comes limited  and  the  germs  gradually  die,  due  to  drying 
out  of  the  canker,  so  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  dormant 
season  very  few  such  cases  show  live  germs  present.” 
The  above  statements  do  not  seem  to  indicate  a knowledge 
of  varietal  susceptibility  nor  the  effect  or  influence  of  cli- 
matic conditions.  It  would  seem  to  indicate  merely  a 
study  of  conditions  such  as  we  would  find  in  parts  of  New 
York,  along  the  great  lakes,  and  in  the  New  England 
states  generally.  On  the  Pacific  coast  conditions  are  en- 
tirely different.  In  my  experience  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
such  varieties  as  the  Spitzenberg  apple,  the  Bartlett,  How- 
ell, Easter,  Bose  and  Comice  pears  are  very  susceptible, 
and  at  no  time  should  one  disregard  the  removal  of  a 
fruit  spur  or  twig  which  is  found  to  be  infected  with 
blight.  During  the  past  four  or  five  years  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  it  has  been  my  experience  that  thousands  of  trees 
have  been  saved  by  the  prompt  removal  of  infected  twigs 
and  fruit  spurs. 

I also  note  in  a bulletin  published  by  Cornell  Univer- 
sity, which  is  probably  responsible  for  statements  made  by 
the  author  of  the  Oregon  Agricultural  College  buletin,  the 
following:  “Break  out  all  blossom  spurs  that  show  the 
disease  and  remove  them  from  the  orchard.  * * * The 

removal  of  these  spurs  as  soon  as  they  show  the  disease 
will  prevent  the  bacteria  from  getting  into  the  limbs.” 
This  advice  is  almost  as  absurd  as  that  of  not  removing 
them  at  all.  Never  remove  an  infected  spur  by  breaking 
it  off.  First  find  the  limits  of  the  infection  and  then 
remove  the  spur  with  a knife.  I have  in  mind  a particular 
case  in  which  the  advice  “to  break  off  the  infected  spurs” 
nearly  ruined  an  orchard.  It  is  really  too  bad  that  we 
are  compelled  to  speak  so  plainly  in  this  matter,  but  in 
our  work  we  have  had  to  contend  with  growers  who  take 
every  opportunity  to  avoid  doing  efficient  work,  especially 
so  when  guided  by  statements  published  and  sent  out  from 
sources  supposed  to  be  reliable  and  authentic. 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


163 


By  far  the  greater  part,  probably  as  high  as  80  per 
cent,  of  the  loss  of  pear  trees  in  California  and  southern 
Oregon  has  resulted  from  body  and  limb  infections  through 
water  sprouts  and  low  fruit  spurs.  Water  sprouts  coming 
up  from  the  root  system,  even  at  some  distance  from  the 
base  of  the  tree,  have  caused  fatal  infections.  Fruit  spurs, 
when  located  on  the  body  or  main  forks,  and  becoming- 
infected,  soon  introduce  the  germs  into  the  thick,  fleshy 
bark,  which  carries  much  of  the  sap,  and  destruction  is  very 
rapid  if  the  tree  is  growing  rapidly  and  if  it  happens  to 
be  a very  susceptible  variety.  Water  sprouts  from  the 
French  stocks  on  which  the  majority  of  our  commercial 
varieties  are  grafted  are  very  susceptible,  and  should  be  re- 
moved with  the  greatest  care.  It  needs  no  argument  there- 
fore, to  state  that  the  removal  of  water  sprouts  and  fruit 
spurs  well  up  on  the  limbs  is  an  important  subsidary  practice 
in  the  control  of  pear  blight.  Much  of  the  cutting  of 
water  sprouts  is  done  by  farm  hands,  who  remove  them 
so  as  to  leave  a stub  an  inch  or  so  long.  The  result  is  that 
several  water  sprouts  come  from  the  same  place  the  next 
year.  Water  sprouts  should  always  be  cut  out  as  far 
in  as  the  wood,  and  a gouge  or  sharp  saw,  although  pro- 
ducing a larger  cut  surface,  effectually  removes  the  spur 
for  all  time.  Heavy  pruning  back  of  the  tops  of  the 
trees,  as  generally  practiced  throughout  the  coast  as  a 
means  to  secure  heavy  fruit  yields,  encourages  the  push- 
ing of  these  water  sprouts  so  that  the  problem  is  really  an 
important  one. 

Crown  galls,  which  may  be  found  on  any  part  of  the 
root  system  or  the  body  and  branches  of  a tree,  should 
always  be  removed  when  found.  The  Spitzenberg  is  very 
susceptible  to  crown  gall,  and  it  is  not  infrequent  to  find 
numerous  galls  on  the  body  and  limbs.  The  peculiar  nature 
of  these  crown  galls  is  such  that  pear  blight  germs  find  a 
ready  entrance.  During  the  past  season  I have  seen  hun- 
dreds of  infections  which  entered  the  trees  through  crown 
galls.  In  cutting  away  crown  galls,  which  in  themselves 
are  caused  by  a bacterial  organism,  the  bark  and  cambium 
should  be  peeled  away  at  least  an  inch  from  the  edge  of 
the  gall,  and  the  gall  itself  completely  cut  out  with  a 


164  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

chisel  or  g'ouge.  Then  thoroughly  sterilize  the  exposed 
surface.  The  reason  for  going  well  beyond  the  outer  mar- 
gin of  the  gall  in  removing  it,  is  because  we  find  the  organ- 
isms causing  the  crown  gall  in  greatest  numbers  along 
this  margin. 

One  matter  of  very  great  importance,  and  which  has 
been  mentioned  before,  is  the  possibility  of  working  all 
the  non-resistant  varieties  of  pears  and  apples  on  resistant 
stocks  or  bodies.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  Winter  Nelis 
and  the  Kieffer  varieties  of  pears  are  the  most  resistant  of 
commercial  varieties.  Under  eastern  and  southern  con- 
ditions, the  Kieffer  pear  is  really  the  only  one  that  has 
stood  against  the  ravages  of  the  blight.  By  this  I do  not 
mean  to  say  that  it  is  wholly  immune,  because  under 
extreme  conditions  it  will  blight.  However,  the  conditions 
on  the  Pacific  coast  are  such  that  if  the  Kieffer  were  used 
as  a stock  or  body  there  would  be  little  danger  of  losing 
the  tree  by  root  and  body  infections.  Experience  in  Cali- 
fornia has  shown  that  while  Bartlett  and  other  non-resist- 
ant varieties  have  blighted  as  far  as  the  Nelis  and  Kieffer 
stocks,  the  infections  have  usually  stopped  at  the  graft 
union.  Every  pear  grower  on  the  coast  who  has  had  ex- 
perience with  blight  knows  that  Winter  Nelis  and  Kieffer, 
the  latter  being  very  rarely  grown,  seldom  blight  seriously, 
although  they  may  be  surrounded  by  a great  deal  of  in- 
fection. Of  course,  we  do  know,  on  the  ether  hand,  that 
they  are  not  immune  even  on  the  coast.  I could  offer  as 
a suggestion  that  Kieffer  stocks  might  well  be  set  out 
and  afterwards  top-grafted  to  any  of  the  commercial 
varieties  of  pears.  This  will,  at  least,  provide  resistant 
bodies  and  roots  which  will  eliminate  the  danger  of  loss 
by  body  and  root  infection.  I wish  to  urge  that  the  finding 
of  a variety  of  pear  entirely  immune  from  pear  blignt  will 
alone  solve  the  pear  blight  problem  for  this  speeJes  of  pome 
fruit.  The  same  will  be  true  of  any  other  of  the  pome 
fruits.  As  soon  as  an  immune  is  found,  the  possibilities  of 
plant  breeding  will,  no  doubt,  evolve  commercial  varieties 
equal  to  those  that  we  have  now,  and  at  the  same  time  they 
will  be  immune  from  disease.  This  is  looking  far  into 
the  future,  but  it  will  be  done  as  it  has  been  done  with 
other  plants. 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


165 


Some  remarkable  cases  of  eradication  have  been  at- 
tempted and  successfully  accomplished  in  California  and 
Oregon  orchards,  notably  in  the  vicinity  of  Vacaville,  Cali- 
fornia, and  in  the  upper  Rogue  River  valley  in  Oregon. 
In  some  cases  where  perhaps  fifty  per  cent  of  the  trees 
were  infected  on  the  bodies  and  in  the  roots,  but  still 
had  sufficient  living  bark  and  a few  roots  left,  the  diseased 
portions  were  completely  cut  out,  even  to  the  removal  of 
all  the  roots  on  one  side  of  the  tree  and  peeling  fully 
three-fourths  of  the  bark  from  the  body.  I have  noted  in 
some  instances  where  fully  three  dollars  in  labor  was 
expended  in  removing  the.  blight  from  a single  tree.  This, 
of  course,  is  exceptional,  but  where  the  value  of  the 
tree  may  be  placed  at  from  ten  to  fifty  dollars,  depending 
on  its  ability  to  bear  heavy  crops  of  fruit,  this  would  not 
seem  to  be  an  undue  expenditure  in  eradicating  the 
blight  and  saving  the  tree.  Many  of  the  trees  so  treated 
have  not  lost  their  vigor  and  are  still  bearing  good  crops 
of  fruit.  From  our  standpoint,  as  pathologists,  if  pear 
blight  is  completely  removed  under  antiseptic  methods  from 
the  body  and  roots,  the  job  is  satisfactory.  It  remains, 
therefore,  with  the  grower  to  decide  how  much  labor  he 
is  going  to  undertake  to  save  the  tree.  Experience 
throughout  the  east  and  south  has  been  that  where  much 
work  of  this  sort  has  been  attempted  on  the  bodies,  numer- 
ous failures  have  resulted,  and  the  work  rendered  worse 
than  useless.  There  is  also  more  or  less  danger,  in  such 
cases,  of  the  blight  in  the  sap  wood.  While  the  germ 
almost  wholly  lives  in  the  bark  and  cambium,  it  is  also 
known  that  it  may  infect  the  rich  sap  wood  of  the  Bartlett, 
Howell,  and  other  varieties  of  pears.  This  is  also  true  of 
the  Spitzenberg  apple.  Occasionally  it  has  been  noted  that 
the  germs  spread  out  in  the  vessels  of  the  wood  and  live 
on  the  starch  and  sugar  stored  there.  It  is,  therefore, 
desirable  to  leave  all  eradication  work  on  the  bodies  dry 
out  thoroughly  for  perhaps  a month  or  so  before  painting 
over  the  wound  with  white  lead  paint.  If  any  growth  takes 
place  the  ooze  may  be  detected  by  the  discoloration  appear- 
ing on  the  paint.  It  is  certain  that  a great  deal  of  blight 
eradication  work  may  be  done  to  the  best  advantage  in  the 


166 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


early  autumn,  for  certainly  better  results  may  be  obtained 
before  the  fall  rains  begin.  It  is  also  much  easier  to  detect 
the  blight  which  has  attacked  the  branches  and  twigs 
during  the  summer,  because  at  this  time  the  foliage  gen- 
erally shows  where  the  blight  has  been  working.  Besides, 
trees  that  have  the  roots  infected  generally  begin  to  show 
a reddish  discoloration  in  the  foliage.  A bad  body  or 
limb  infection  will  also  have  a tendency  to  cause  the  same 
discoloration  in  the  foliage  above  the  infected  part.  How- 
ever, this  reddish  discoloration  of  the  foliage  is,  by  no 
means,  a certain  indication  of  blight  infection,  as  there  are 
many  other  causes  which  would  produce  a like  appearance 
in  the  foliage.  Root  rot,  borers,  gophers,  or  even  a girdle 
caused  by  any  means  whatever,  will  produce  practically  the 
same  discoloration.  In  irrigated  orchards  where  the  water 
has  been  cut  off  too  early  in  the  summer,  there  is  always 
a tendency  toward  foliage  discoloration.  The  foliage  test, 
however,  is  a sure  one  that  something  is  wrong  with  the 
tree,  and  such  a tree  should  never  be  passed  by  without 
making  a very  critical  examination.  Never  leave  a tree 
unless  you  are  absolutely  sure  of  your  work.  Careless 
inspection  and  careless  eradication  are  really  worse  than 
no  work  at  all,  for,  on  the  one  hand,  enough  work  may  be 
done  to  deceive,  while  on  the  other  hand  the  chances  for 
infection  and  subsequent  spread  of  the  disease  remains. 

Spraying,  as  a rule,  is  of  little  use  in  controlling  the 
blight.  In  the  blooming  season  new  blossoms  are  opening 
every  hour  of  the  day,  and  new  shoots  are  pushing  forth, 
all  of  which  are  subject  to  infection  through  insect 
agencies.  From  the  standpoint,  therefore,  of  attacking 
the  pear  blight  problem  by  spraying  there  is  nothing  to 
be  done  so  far  as  the  blossoms  and  young  shoots  are  con- 
cerned. On  the  other  hand,  we  have  been  able  to  cover 
up  some  mild  cases  by  whitewash,  applied  thickly,  so  that 
they  were  unable,  temporarily,  to  be  a source  of  infection 
during  the  blossoming  season.  Whitewashing  or  spraying 
in  the  winter  time  may  be  of  some  slight  assistance  in  the 
matter,  but  it  is  not  recommended.  A strong  lime-sulphur 
wash  applied  to  the  bodies  just  before  the  blossoms  open 
will  have  a tendency  to  keep  insects  away  from  any  infec- 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


167 


tion  which  would  ooze.  It  must  be  understood,  however, 
that  all  pear  blight  infection  should  be  carefully  removed, 
and  in  no  case  should  there  be  any  attempt  to  cover  up 
any  known  case  of  hold-over  blight.  The  only  reason  for 
advocating  the  strong  lime-sulphur  wash  is  that,  should 
a case  be  missed  by  accident,  the  use  of  the  wash  may  pre- 
vent the  infection  from  getting  away.  Just  as  soon  as  it 
is  discovered,  whether  the  wash  has  been  applied  or  not, 
it  should  be  removed.  I wish  to  emphasize  that  any  at- 
tempt to  spray  or  wash  may  be  considered  only  a tem- 
porary make-shift.  If  there  is  a case  of  hold-over  that  has 
been  covered  by  spray  or  wash,  it  must  be  eventually  re- 
moved, and  especially  so  if  it  is  in  the  body  of  the  tree. 
The  wash  in  no  way  controls  the  spread  of  the  blight  in 
the  soft  bark  beneath,  its  only  office  is  to  prevent,  if  pos- 
sible, the  spread  of  blight  to  other  trees,  by  preventing  in- 
sects from  coming  into  contact  with  the  bacterial  ooze. 

There  are  on  the  market  a number  of  so-called  remedies 
for  pear  blight.  All  the  concerns  selling  these  remedies 
have  no  standing  whatever,  and  ther  literautre,  which  is  sent 
broadcast  over  the  country,  may  well  be  promptly  thrown 
in  the  fire.  A favorite  remedy  is  a mixture  of  potassium 
cyanide  and  sulphur  placed  about  the  roots  of  the  tree. 
Still  others  consist  of  such  insolubles  as  charcoal,  calomel, 
sulphur,  bone  black,  and  other  substances  put  into  holes 
bored  into  the  bodies  of  the  trees.  In  every  community 
trees  may  be  found  that  have  been  treated  in  this  way, 
and  invariably  the  materials  put  into  the  holes  has  neither 
changed  its  chemical  makeup  nor  has  it  diminished  in 
quantity  by  absorption. 

A common  remedy  is  the  use  of  table  salt,  or  even 
some  alkali,  both  of  which  would  be  promptly  removed 
from  the  soil  if  present  in  too  large  quantities  in  nature. 
The  use  of  table  salt  is  merely  to  inhibit  the  growth  of  the 
tree  by  preventing  the  normal  taking  up  of  water  by  the 
root  system.  A tree  grown  in  a very  saline  soil  cannot  take 
up  water  enough  to  make  a strong  growth,  hence,  it  does 
not  blight  badly,  perhaps  not  at  all.  As  indicated  before, 
trees  grown  under  good  cultivation  with  sufficient  mois- 
ture and  plant  food  make  a strong  growth,  and  are,  there- 


168 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


fore,  more  subject  to  blight.  There  should  be  no  desire 
on  the  part  of  an  orchardist  to  injure  his  soil,  and  conse- 
quently, his  trees,  by  adding  to  the  soil  any  chemical  or 
salt  known  to  have  a poisonous  action,  or  at  lest,  an  inhib- 
itive  effect.  Do  not  take  the  word  of  everyone  or  anyone 
who  has  something  to  sell.  Before  buying  any  cure  or 
remedy,  consult  someone  who  can  be  trusted  and  who  has 
nothing  for  sale. 

The  whole  subject  of  pruning  is  such  a lengthy  one 
that  it  can  scarcely  be  gone  into  in  full  detail.  However, 
the  vase-formed  tree,  headed  low  with  the  main  branches 
shortened  in  to  eighteen  inches  or  less,  is  decidedly  the 
most  desirable  form  to  grow  a tree.  Up  to  the  third  year 
the  main  forks  or  leaders  should  be  so  shortened  in  so  as  to 
make  a tree  with  a sturdy  framework  and  at  the  same  time 
keep  it  down  so  low  as  to  be  accessible  for  spraying,  picking 
fruit,  etc.  If  water  sprouts  are  kept  off  the  body  and 
main  limbs,  and  if  lateral  fruit  branches  are  developed 
within  the  fruiting  area,  the  most  desirable  form  of  tree 
will  be  produced  for  controlling  the  blight.  A tree 
pruned  to  this  form,  even  if  infected,  has  its  blossoms 
well  away  from  the  vulnerable  parts  of  the  tree,  namely, 
the  body  and  framework.  The  tall  pyramid,  with  a single 
main  leader  and  with  its  long  branches  covered  with  fruit 
spurs  and  water  sprouts,  makes  the  work  of  fighting  pear 
blight  a difficult  one.  It  is  hard  to  get  into  the  top  of  the 
tree  with  this  closed  center  to  find  out  what  is  going  on, 
and,  besides,  the  fruit  spurs  and  water  sprouts  being  close 
to  the  body  as  well  as  upon  it,  readily  carry  the  blight  in, 
usually  resulting  in  the  entire  loss  of  the  main  portion, 
if  not  the  entire  tree.  One  only  need  look  around  the 
valley  where  the  pyramidal  or  central  leader  type  is  grown, 
and  it  will  be  seen  that  an  infection  on  the  body  resulting 
in  a girdling  of  it  necessitates  the  removal  of  the  entire 
center  above  the  point  of  infection,  thus  removing  prac- 
tically all  the  heart  of  the  tree’s  growth.  Any  of  the 
limbs  left  below  the  point  of  infection  are  usually  long  and 
slender,  and,  besides,  are  usually  poorly  placed  to  form  a 
rood  tree  of  any  sort  thereafter.  The  pravailing  type  of 
Bartlett  tree  in  California  is  very  near  the  desirable  form; 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


169 


however,  in  many  cases,  after  heading  back  the  trees,  they 
have  been  allowed  to  grow  three  or  four  years  and  then 
reheaded  several  feet  from  the  crown,  sometimes  as  high 
as  fifteen  feet,  resulting  in  a two-story  pear  tree.  In  very 
few  cases  has  there  been  any  attempt  to  keep  the  fruit  off 
the  main  framework  branches,  and  to  keep  the  water 
sprouts  and  fruit  spurs  from  the  bodies  and  roots.  There 
has  been  no  special  occasion  for  forking  at  the  frame- 
work, since  at  the  time  the  trees  were  being  formed  pear 
blight  had  not  made  its  entrance  into  the  California  or- 
chards. Among  many  growers,  especially  those  of  the  old 
school,  in  the  Rogue  River  valley,  we  find  that  there  is  a 
tendency  to  adhere  to  the  pyramid  form  of  tree  in  prac- 
tically all  varieties  grown,  even  the  Bartlett.  We  readily 
understand  why  this  has  been  the  case,  because  the  pioneer 
fruit  growers  in  the  valley  recognized  only  this  form  of 
tree  as  being,  perhaps  the  easiest  to  prune  and  undoubt- 
edly the  easiest  to  keep  from  breaking  down  when  heavily 
loaded  with  fruit.  Their  weak  attempts  at  forming  the 
open-headed  tree  were  failures  because  during  the  first 
two  or  three  years  of  growth  they  neglected  to  shorten  in 
enough.  Even  today  this  is  the  common  error;  it  would  be 
better  to  shorten  to  six  inches  than  to  lengthen  to  eighteen 
inches.  Now  that  pear  blight  has  come  into  the  valley, 
this  method  of  pruning,  or  forming  the  tree  by  maintain- 
ing a central  leader,  will  have  to  be  altered.  I know  of 
perhaps  five  or  six  hundred  trees  that  have  been  wholly 
lost  on  account  of  this  style  of  growth;  that  is  to  say, 
practically  the  entire  bearing  portion  of  the  trees  had  to 
be  taken  out  on  account  of  blight  girdling  the  leader.  In 
many  jmung  orchards  which  have  been  planted  within  the 
past  two  or  three  years,  the  growers  are  changing  them 
into  the  vase  or  open-head  form,  recognizing  the  great 
difficulty  in  saving  the  other  type  of  tree  should  blight 
become  serious.  In  the  larger  trees  it  is  a rather  difficult 
thing  to  change  them  over  into  the  vase  form,  but  in 
every  case  where  blight  has  seriously  damaged  such  trees 
the  resultant  tree,  of  necessity,  becomes  vase  formed  when 
the  blight  is  cut  out. 

Severe  pruning,  though  in  most  cases,  of  course,  giving 


170 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


good  results  in  stimulating  vigorous  twig  growth  and  fruit 
production,  tends  also  to  result  in  more  serious  attacks  of 
the  blight.  Everyone  knows  that  the  more  vigorous  the 
winter  pruning  the  m.ore  luxuriant  the  twig  growth  during 
the  following  season.  The  result  always  is  that  every  dor- 
mant bud  tends  to  push,  and,  being  very  tender  and  sappy, 
easily  becomes  infected  and  blights  badly.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  soon  as  the  trees  come  into  bearing,  summer 
pruning,  if  practiced  in  the  proper  way,  will  result  in  a 
more  normal  vegetative  condition,  and  the  tendency  to  set 
fruit  will  also  be  correspondingly  greater.  A heavy  set 
of  fruit,  other  factors  being  equal,  will  always  tend  to 
keep  down  excessive  vigor;  and  this  is  usually  a good  thing 
under  Pacific  coast  conditions,  where  the  growing  season 
is  quite  long  as  compared  with  conditions  in  the  eastern 
sections  of  the  United  States. 

Cultivation,  fertilization  and  irrigation  are  three  very 
important  factors  to  be  considered  in  connection  with  the 
control  of  pear  blight.  I shall  take  these  up  separately, 
with  only  as  much  detail  as  will  make  the  text  plain. 
Thorough  cultivation  is  more  essential,  especially  from 
southern  Oregon  southward  on  the  Pacific  coast,  than  in 
the  east,  for  the  reason  that  rainfall  is  not  only  much 
less,  but  from  the  spring  of  the  year  until  autumn  the 
season  is  practically  without  precipitation.  In  districts 
where  irrigation  is  practiced,  cultivation  is  just  as  neces- 
sary. In  the  east  it  is  not  an  uncommon  practice  to  permit 
pear  and  apple  orchards  to  grow  in  sod  when  it  is  evident 
that  the  blight  is  getting  beyond  control.  Everyone  knows 
that  lack  of  cultivation  induces  surface  evaporation  from 
the  soil,  and  trees  are  thus  made  to  grow  more  slowly  be- 
cause of  lack  of  moisture,  and  hence,  even  very  susceptible 
varieties  of  pears  and  apples  do  not  blight  badly  because 
the  vegetative  vigor  is  lacking.  The  necessity  for  culti- 
vation as  well  as  the  method  to  be  used  varies  so  greatly 
in  the  pacific  coast  orchards  that  it  is  impossible  to  make 
any  general  rule.  Each  soil  type  requires  different  treat- 
ment to  the  end  that  soil  moisture  be  retained  during  the 
growing  season  of  the  trees.  Some  of  the  moist,  deep  soils 
in  the  Sacramento  river  districts,  and  perhaps  in  a few 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


171 


spots  in  the  Rogue  River  valley,  retain  their  moisture  so 
well  that  pears  get  along  very  well  for  a year  or  so  without 
cultivation.  On  the  other  hand,  practically  all  of  the  lands 
in  these  districts  need  thorough  cultivation  to  bring  them 
up  to  anything  like  normal  and  to  mature  full  crops. 

The  matter  of  fertilization  is  an  important  one,  especially 
where  large  crops  have  been  taken  for  several  successive 
years  from  an  orchard.  However,  it  is  known  that  nitrogen- 
ous fertilizers,  such  as  stable  manure,  as  well  as  commercial 
fertilizers  containing  large  amounts  of  readily  available 
nitrates,  tend  to  produce  luxuriant  growth,  and  hence,  trees 
so  stimulated  blight  more  seriously  than  those  not  fertil- 
ized. Fertilizer  must  be  used,  but  it  must  be  used  in 
moderate  amounts.  There  is  no  advantge  in  using  an  ex- 
cess of  potash  to  make  the  trees  more  hardy  and  thus 
more  resistant  to  blight.  The  fondest  hopes  of  some 
would-be  experimenter  have  been  blasted  by  trying  to 
prevent  blight  injury  through  the  use  of  potash  in  the 
form  of  muriate  and  sulphate.  It  is  the  same  old  story,  the 
blight  must  be  controlled  by  having  no  hold-overs  present 
during  the  infection  period.  I have  seen  large  commercial 
orchards  practically  ruined  in  one  year  where  potash  was 
used  as  a preventive  against  blight,  so  avoid  using  it  for 
any  other  purpose  than  adding  fertility  to  the  soil. 

The  whole  subject  of  irrigation  is  so  broad  that  it  will 
only  be  discussed  here  in  its  connection  with  the  control 
and  eradication  of  pear  blight.  While  irrigation  cannot  be 
considered  in  the  same  light  as  rainfall,  since  it  is  merely 
water  applied  to  the  root  system,  it  is,  nevertheless,  im- 
portant to  understand  it  thoroughly,  especially  in  con- 
nection with  blight  control.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that 
periods  of  rainy  weather  during  the  spring  and  summer 
produce  what  have  been  termed  infection  periods,  through 
the  wetting  of  the  trees,  and  thus  permitting  a spread  of 
the  infection  through  infected  trees,  and  making  it  pos- 
sible for  the  germs  to  be  more  readily  distributed  over  a 
considerable  area  in  any  district.  The  warm,  muggy 
weather,  such  as  we  find  common  in  the  east  following 
rainy  periods,  further  tend  to  influence  the  spread  of  in- 
fection. Irrigation  in  no  way  induces  any  of  the  above 


172 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


conditions,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  its  effect  is  noted  in 
the  tendency  of  the  trees  to  push  very  rapidly  under  a 
normal  water  supply  and  to  become  sappy  and  less  resist- 
ant to  blight.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to  have  this  in  mind, 
and  to  apply  no  more  water  than  is  actually  necessary  for 
the  production  of  the  crop  or  the  maintaining  of  a healthy 
condition  in  the  tree.  In  cases  v/here  serious  infection 
has  made  itself  apparent,  the  water  should  be  immediately 
turned  off  and  kept  off  until  the  blight  is  under  control. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  in  all  irrigated  districts  some  harm 
usually  results  from  over-irrigation  rather  than  under-ir- 
rigation. The  tendency  to  apply  too  much  water  is  espec- 
ially the  great  fault  with  beginners  in  irrigation.  To  irri- 
gate properly  and  scientifically,  one  should  know  soil  con- 
ditions, soil  depths,  and  drainage.  Another  important 
factor  is  a knowledge  of  the  duty  of  water;  by  this  it  is  to 
be  understood  the  amount  of  water  which  should  be  used  to 
produce  the  best  results.  The  Rogue  River  Valley  is  so 
situated  that  a minimum  amount  of  irrigation  should  be 
used  in  certain  well-defined  districts,  or,  perhaps  I might 
say,  very  small  areas.  Generally,  pears  can  be  grown 
without  any  irrigation  whatever;  and  with  good  cultivation 
and  proper  soil  treatment,  apples  will  be  able  to  get  along 
fairly  well  with  much  less  water  than  is  generally  sup- 
posed. It  is  well  known  that  the  destruction  of  pears  by 
blight  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  in  California,  was  due  as 
much  to  maintaining  too  vigorous  a growth  by  irrigation 
as  it  was  through  lack  of  the  important  detail  knowledge 
of  fighting  it  scientifically.  Not  only  were  the  orchards 
lost,  but  valuable  soils  were  practically  ruined  by  over- 
irrigation. 

It  is  a well-settled  fact  that  irrigation  is  to  be  practiced 
more  or  less  generally  in  the  Rogue  River  Valley,  but  I 
wish  to  sound  this  note  of  warning  in  regard  to  the  matter 
of  over-doing  it.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  heavy,  black,  sticky 
soils  of  the  valley  floor  are  at  all  benefitted  by  irrigation; 
I might  say  that  it  has  been  proven  that  they  may  be 
injured. 

In  the  Eastern  states  it  is  a very  common  practice  to 
sow  a crop  of  cow  peas,  sorghum,  or  sometimes  even  Indian 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


173 


corn  in  the  late  spring.  This  is  done  to  take  up  the  sur- 
plus moisture  of  the  soil  from  the  trees,  and  has  a ten- 
dency to  check  luxuriant  growth,  and  hence  acts  as  a 
check  to  pear  blight.  It  must  be  understood,  however,  that 
the  above  practice  would  not  be  at  all  advisable  in  most 
Pacific  Coast  districts,  where  there  is  a shortage  of  soil 
moisture.  There  are  localities,  however,  where  it  may  on 
some  occasions  become  necessary  to  make  use  of  cover 
crops  in  this  way.  The  use  of  cover  crops  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  should  be  for  a wholly  different  purpose;  namely,  to 
add  fertility  to  the  soil  as  well  as  to  change  its  physical 
condition ; in  fact,  the  use  of  cover  crops  may  be  considered 
to  serve  the  same  purpose  as  stable  manure  in  making  the 
soil  more  easily  tilled  and  rendering  it  in  better  condition 
for  giving  up  plant  food.  Cover  crops  of  vetch  or  cow 
peas,  of  course,  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  and,  from  this 
standpoint,  it  is  perhaps  better  that  these  leguminous  plants 
should  be  used  in  preference  to  rye,  or  any  of  the  grains 
or  grasses.  On  some  soils  such  cover  crops  as  rye  or 
wheat  do  not  give  the  best  results,  especially  on  the  sticky 
soils.  It  usually  takes  a great  deal  of  labor  to  produce  a 
good  soil  mulch  after  turning  under  a crop  of  rye. 

The  rule  in  the  pear  orchards  of  the  Eastern  states  has 
been  to  keep  the  trees  in  a half-starved  condition  for  fear 
blight  would  destroy  them.  Orchard  treatment  of  this 
kind  naturally  renders  the  fruit  less  luscious  and  with  a 
distinctly  poorer  flavor  than  fruit  grown  under  good  cul- 
tivation. While  I would  advise  a good  deal  of  caution  in 
producing  too  vigorous  or  sappy  a tree,  where  there  is 
serious  danger  of  destruction  by  blight,  I would  not  advise 
the  pear  and  apple  growers  of  the  Pacific  Coast  to  starve 
or  under-cultivate  or  under-prune  their  trees;  but  I do 
mean  to  say  that  they  should  practice  moderation  in  all 
these  things.  This  is  especially  true  in  districts  where  the 
blight  is  new  to  them,  and  where  they  are  not  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  methods  of  eradicating  it  from  their 
orchards  and  keeping  it  under  control.  Pear  blight  is  so 
different  from  all  other  orchard  diseases,  which  respond  so 
readily  to  spray  treatments,  that  it  has  been  the  general 
rule  for  whole  communities,  and  even  states,  to  lose  all 


X74  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

their  orchards  before  being  brought  to  a realization  of  the 
necessity  for  studying  the  disease  carefully  and  obeying  to 
the  letter  the  instructions  for  combating  it. 

In  a preceding  chapter,  mention  was  made  of  the  en- 
ormous losses  in  the  pear  districts  of  the  San  Joaquin  val- 
ley, California.  In  the  short  space  of  three  years,  from 
1900  to  1904,  almost  half  a million  pear  trees  were  lost  by 
blight.  Practically  no  attempt  was  made  to  check  the 
disease,  and  one  of  the  greatest  industries  of  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley  vanished  like  a dream,  and  even  before  the 
people  realized  what  had  befallen  them.  As  in  other 
localities.  East  and  South,  the  growers  had  a self-sufficient 
and  self-satified  feeling  that  blight  could  never  hurt  them. 
They  had  grown  pears  for  a quarter  of  a century  and 
more,  and  such  a thing  as  blight  entering  their  valley  was 
just  as  impossible  as  anything  one  might  imagine. 

In  all  that  time,  thunder,  lightning,  excessive  heat, 
cold,  etc.,  had  caused  not  the  slightest  injury.  However, 
as  soon  as  blight  came,  all  the  factors  mentioned  above 
seemed  to  explain  their  predicament  fully;  they  needed  no 
help  and  spurned  assistance.  This  is  the  story,  in  a few 
words,  a story  which  might  be  told  of  many  other  locali- 
ties which  had  suffered  the  same  calamity. 

In  1904  the  blight  invaded  the  pear  district  of  the 
Sacramento  Valley,  and  although  some  little  work  was  done 
in  the  matter  of  eradicating  it,  the  efforts  were  weak  and 
ineffective.  Prominent  men  in  the  state  became  alarmed, 
and  the  pathologists  of  the  United  States  Department  were 
called  to  the  Coast.  In  the  fall  of  1904  Professor  M.  B. 
Waite  made  his  first  visit  to  California,  and  inaugurated 
a plan  of  campaign  for  eradicating  it,  or  at  least  keeping 
it  under  control.  I may  say  that  the  Gk)vernment  patho- 
logists did  not  come  to  the  Pacific  Coast  until  they  were 
called.  Such  influential  men  as  Ex-Governor  Pardee  and 
prominent  Southern  Pacific  officials  appealed  to  Hon.  James 
Wilson,  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  to  send  as  many  men  as 
he  had  available,  to  aid  in  what  was  thought  to  be  almost 
a hopeless  case.  Blight  was  everywhere,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Santa  Clara  Valley,  which  to  this  day  has  kept 
it  out  by  very  careful  and  hard  work.  The  task  under- 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


175 


taken  was  an  enormous  one,  and  the  amount  of  territory 
necessary  to  be  covered  was  so  large  that  every  available 
source  of  help  was  called  for,  and  the  campaign  finally 
started  in  the  early  winter  of  1905.  The  time  was  short, 
but  good  work  was  done.  In  many  districts  where  there 
was  a willingness  to  co-operate  with  the  Government 
officers  the  blight  was  checked;  in  others,  where  conditions 
were  the  reverse,  the  blight  gained  headway.  The  result 
of  several  year’s  work,  which  has  been  carried  on  up  to 
the  present  time  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture, is  that  several  districts  in  the  Sacramento  Val- 
ley and  adjacent  valleys,  have  saved  their  pears.  There 
are  particular  instances  where  practically  everything  went 
excepting  single  orchards  which  were  saved  by  individual 
growers,  by  using  heroic  measures  and  carrying  into 
effect  every  detail  given  them  by  the  Government  officers. 
To  this  day  these  men  continue  to  grow  pears,  while  their 
neighbors  are  entirely  out  of  the  business.  They  are 
charged  with  being  lucky,  but  there  is  no  luck  in  fighting 
pear  blight;  it  is  careful  attention  to  details  and  constant 
watchfulness.  Among  those  who  have  been  successful  in 
fighting  pear  blight  is  Howard  Reed,  of  Marysville,  Cali- 
fornia. Mr.  Reed,  with  6,000  Bartletts,  has  lost  relatively 
few,  although  the  difficulties  he  had  to  overcome  would 
have  discouraged  the  average  man.  Three  years  ago  his 
orchard  was  under  water  on  account  of  the  overflow  from 
the  Yuba  River,  and  he  was  compelled  to  fight  pear  blight 
from  boats  and  rafts.  To  show  you  how  well  he  has  won 
out  in  the  fight,  I will  simply  state  that  his  crop  two  years 
ago  was  fifty  carloads  of  first-class  fruit,  which  he  shipped 
to  Eastern  markets.  Besides  his  green  fruit,  he  dried 
something  over  twenty-five  tons.  I cannot  help  pointing 
to  Mr.  Reed  as  an  example  for  everyone  to  follow.  He 
has  made  doubly  good  because  he  had  to  fight  not  only  the 
blight  but  the  mossback  community  in  which  he  lived. 

In  the  foothill  districts  of  Eldorado,  Placer  and  Nevada 
Counties,  to  the  east  of  Sacramento,  the  loss  has  been  ex- 
ceedingly light.  The  growers  in  these  sections  began  their 
fight  at  an  early  stage  of  the  game  and  have  kept  it  up 
unceasingly,  so  that  at  this  time  there  are  probably  no 


176  State  Board  of  Ho7dicultural  Inspection 

fewer  bearing  pear  trees  than  there  were  four  or  five 
years  ago.  In  Placer  County  alone,  at  the  time  I first 
began  my  work  there,  ten  inspectors,  including  the  horti- 
cultural commissioners  of  the  county,  were  put  on,  and  the 
work  of  eradication  was  thoroughly  done. 

It  would  be  very  difficult  to  tell  how  many  trees  were 
lost  in  California  over  the  entire  state,  but  the  figures  taken 
from  the  carload  shipments  will  tell  the  story  pretty  well. 
In  1900  California  shipped  2,115  carloads  of  pears  and  in 
the  same  year  7,275  tons  were  dried,  and  perhaps  half  a mil- 
lion cases  were  canned.  In  1907  only  1,039  cars  were  shipped 
and  only  500  tons  were  dried.  We  have  no  data  on  the 
canned  product,  but  it  is  well  known  that  it  fell  off  cor- 
respondingly. Such  figures  should  strike  terror  into  any 
community  whose  industry  is  that  of  growing  pears  and 
apples. 

In  the  Rogue  River  Valley  and  in  Southern  Oregon  we 
find  a magnificent  soil  for  pear  and  apple  growing.  At 
this  time,  with  the  valley  only  partially  developed,  the  es- 
timated value  of  the  orchards  reaches  far  into  the  millions. 
Pear  blight  has  not  been  in  the  valley  very  long,  but  it  is 
here  and  must  be  considered  seriously.  Only  in  three  or 
four  cases  has  it  done  any  serious  damage,  and  the  total 
loss  for  the  entire  valley  in  pears  and  apples  is  probably 
not  more  than  2,000  trees.  The  highest  recorded  loss  in 
one  orchard  is  perhaps  500  or  600  trees,  and  this  loss 
might  have  been  avoided  if  the  owner  had  taken  the  proper 
steps  in  eradicating  a very  few  cases  of  hold-over  blight. 
Another  orchard  lost  nearly  200  trees,  but  these  were 
mostly  infected  and  practically  destroyed  before  it  was 
known  that  blight  existed  in  the  valley.  The  writer  first 
came  into  the  valley  in  1907,  and  since  that  time  a very 
strenuous  fight  has  been  kept  up.  As  in  California,  we 
had  to  fight  stupidity  and  ignorance,  but,  for  the  most  part, 
the  growers  have  swung  into  line  and  are  putting  up  a 
good  fight.  Very  slight  losses  have  occurred  during  the 
past  two  years,  and  these  losses  have  been  mostly  in  the 
villages  and  towns,  and  in  the  old  home  orchards,  where  it 
is  difficult  to  make  the  owners  see  the  necessity  of  cleaning 
up.  The  commercial  orchards  have  done  excellent  work. 


Alnnnnl  nf  TTort  iciil  I lire,  Tdalin, 


PT.ATR  XXVTfl. 


KT.BERTA  PEACH 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


177 


Even  the  largest  orchards  in  the  valley  have  demonstrated 
the  effectiveness  of  careful  eradication.  At  this  time  it  is 
a pleasure  to  visit  them  and  see  the  heavily  laden  pear  and 
apple  trees  with  not  a blighted  spur  or  twig  upon  them. 

The  importance  of  the  pear  blight  problem  to  the  hor- 
ticultural interests  of  the  Pacific  Coast  states  emphasizes 
very  clearly  the  value  and  necessity  of  plant  pathological 
work.  What  each  district  needs  is  a strong  man  who  is 
both  scientific  and  practical,  for  handling  such  a difficult 
problem.  Not  only  does  each  district  need  the  constant 
and  careful  attention  of  a trained  pathologist,  but  it  needs 
inspectors  and  commissioners  who  will  see  to  it  that  the 
horticultural  statutes  are  rigidly  enforced.  If  a grower 
chooses  to  lose  his  crop  by  any  disease  which  is  not  con- 
sidered contagious  or  spreading,  and  which  may  readily 
be  controlled  by  simple  spray  treatments,  it  is  his  own 
lookout;  but  where  his  pears  and  apples  are  a source  of 
general  infection  from  pear  blight  it  becomes  a matter  for 
the  district  commissioner  and  local  inspector.  There  is 
only  one  remedy,  and  that  is  to  increase  the  inspection  and 
make  it  rigid.  Perhaps  one  other  thing  might  be  added. 
It  would  be  a wise  plan  for  each  county  or  district  to  ap- 
point a large  number  of  volunteer  inspectors  who  would 
serve  without  pay  in  their  own  interest,  but  who  would  be 
vested  with  authority  to  inspect  and  condemn  within  their 
immediate  neighborhood. 

At  this  time  the  Rogue  River  Valley  has  the  best  equip- 
ment for  fighting  blight  known  to  the  country.  In  Jack- 
son  County  alone,  besides  a pathologist  in  charge,  there  is 
a chief  inspector  and  four  deputies.  These  men  report 
daily  to  the  central  office,  and  keep  a careful  record  of  their 
work.  In  addition,  there  are  over  fifty  deputy  horticultural 
commissioners,  so  distributed  as  to  give  each  neighborhood 
one  or  more  men  who  work  in  conjunction  with  the  in- 
spectors. These  men  are  given  full  authority  to  enforce 
the  horticultural  laws.  Being  owners,  they  have  a direct 
interest. 

To  those  who  have  read  the  preceding  chapters  care- 
fully, it  may  seem  unnecessary  to  add  anything  more,  as  it 
is  believed  that  all  of  the  important  facts  about  pear  blight 


178 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


have  been  clearly  stated.  However,  a resume  ’ ’will  bring 
before  us  all  the  pertinent  facts  so  that  the  reader  ^^may 
see  at  a glance  what  he  may  want  to  know  without  reading 
the  text  again.  jiqri-; 

1.  The  history  of  pear  blight  dates  from  the  year* il7 80, 
the  first  record  was  published  in  1794  in  the  transactions 
of  the  Massachusetts  Society  for  the  Promotion  < of  ^Agri- 
culture. This  first  paper  on  pear  blight  gave^to  the  high- 
lands of  the  upper  Hudson  the  distinction  of  being  The 
birthplace  of  the  disease.  However,  at  the*  time'^  of  * the 
discovery,  the  disease  had  a wider  spread  throughout  ithe 
New  England  states  than  has  been  recorded. aiodooqcu.i 

2.  The  disease  known  as  pear  blight' is -not  {known 

outside  of  North  America.  Europe,  Asia,  Australia  arid 
all  other  parts  of  the  known  world  are  free  of rom'^^  the 
disease.  1)9110  ijioo  oJ 

3.  The  true  character  of  the  disease'^was' worked  but 
by  Professor  T.  J.  Burrell,  of  the  University  of  illlinOisr  in 
1878,  and  was  published  to  the  world  in  1880.  Dir.  J Burrell 
found  that  the  disease  is  caused  by  a small  germ  belonging 
to  the  great  family  of  bacteria,  which  are  miriute,^{micro- 
scopic  plants,  the  smallest  vegetable  organism  >in  the  'WbHdl 
The  pear  blight  bacillus  is  only  *'1-50,000- of  an  inch  in 
diameter  and  about  1-25,000  of  an 'inch  In  length under 
the  miscroscope,  when  magnified’  1,000*  diameters,'^  its  ^ap- 
pearance is  that  of  a hyphen  (-).  L Oii'FK; 

4.  The  pear  blight  germ  attacks  all -species  ^belonging 

to  the  pome  or  apple  family  andJ  also  in  a small  Way  infects 
plums  and  the  apricot.  Among  the  cultivated^  fruits,  there- 
fore, it  attacks  the  apple,  pear,  quince,  loquat;'{plumi''rind 
apricot.  The  following  wild  fruits  indigenious  to  the 
Pacific  Coast  states  are  also  attacked  byTU'^'T  shalU'give 
the  common  names  and  after  them  the' botanical  or  scieh-' 
tific  names,  so  that  students  of  botany  may  be^able^to 
look  them  up:  > i vb!  9iK  fert  ^ .b'rjj-jeuh 

(a)  Service  berry  or  June  berry 
folia). 

(b)  Thorn  apple  or  haw  (Crataegus  douglasUy. 

(c)  Christmas  berry  or  Toyon  (Heteromeles  arhuW 

folia).  ■!  ^ '!  ■ ! *<  ' ’-1 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


179 


(d)  Wild  pear  or  apple  (Pyrus  rivularis), 

(e)  Mountain  ash  or  rowan  (Sorbus  occidentalis) , 

There  are  many  more  species  of  the  above  genera  to  be 

found  in  the  Eastern  and  Southern  states,  but  a knowledge 
of  the  fact  that  all  pome  fruits  blight  should  be  sufficient. 

5.  The  damage  by  blight  in  the  Eastern  and  Southern 
states  has  been  such  that  practically  all  of  the  better  varie- 
ties of  pears  have  gone  out  and  commercial  pear  growing 
is  an  industry  of  the  past. 

6.  The  blight  has  spread  into  every  known  section  of 
the  United  States,  Southern  Canada  and  Northern  Mexico; 
only  a very  few  small  districts  still  remaining  free  from  it. 

7.  The  first  appearance  of  the  blight  is  made  evident 
by  the  blossoms  and  young  shoots  becoming  withered  and 
black,  finally  drying  up.  Later,  branches  and  limbs,  as 
well  as  the  bodies  and  root  system,  become  infected.  Even 
the  fruit  may  become  infected  and  wither  away. 

8.  The  infections  first  noted  in  the  spring  come  from 
hold-over  cases  which  have  resulted  from  the  previous 
year's  infection.  These  hold-overs  may  be  found  in  the 
larger  limbs,  bodies  and  roots  of  the  pear,  apple,  quince, 
loquat  and  even  our  wild  fruits,  though  less  frequently. 
During  the  blossoming  period  these  hold-overs  ooze  and 
this  gummy  substance,  which  is  filled  with  the  bacteria, 
become  points  for  the  starting  of  new  infections  in  the 
blossoms  and  twigs. 

9.  The  germs  from  the  hold-overs  are  carried  about 
by  bees  and  other  insects.  Biting  and  sucking  insects 
cause  infections  in  the  young  twigs,  and  even  the  bodies. 
Sapsuckers,  or  woodpeckers,  may  also  spread  the  blight. 
The  use  of  pruning  tools,  not  disinfected,  also  spreads  it. 
The  blight  may  also  enter  small  growth  cracks  in  the 
twigs,  limbs,  bodies  and  roots,  and  through  crown  galls. 

10.  Weather  conditions  favor  the  spread  of  blight,  as 
well  as  favoring  infection.  Dry  weather  tends  to  prevent, 
not  only  the  spread  of  infection  from  tree  to  tree,  but 
also  the  spread  of  the  disease  in  the  tree  itself.  It  is  as 
easy  to  understand  this  as  it  is  to  understand  that  dry 
weather  prevents  growth  and  germination  of  seeds  and 
plants. 


180  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

11.  Thunder,  lightning  and  other  atmospheric  disturb- 
ances have  no  influence  whatever  on  the  disease  known  as 
pear  blight.  The  precipitation  which  accompanies  them  is 
the  only  factor  besides  warmth. 

12.  The  only  way  to  control  blight  is  to  remove  all 
cases  of  hold-over  before  the  blossoming  period  begins. 
Hold-overs  removed  during  the  blossoming  period  do  not 
insure  that  some  infection  has  not  taken  place  from  them. 
To  remove  hold-overs,  or  rather  to  find  them  on  the  rough 
bodies  use  a gouge  or  some  other  instrument  with  which 
to  expose  the  tissues  beneath.  A water-soaked,  reddish 
condition  of  the  soft  bark  indicates  infection,  which  should 
be  antiseptically  removed. 

13.  The  antiseptic  to  be  used  should  be  bichloride  of 
mercury,  or  corrosive  sublimate,  and  use  no  other.  This 
disinfectant  should  be  used  at  a strength  of  one  to  1,000, 
or  perhaps  stronger,  but  never  weaker.  The  use  of  the 
various  substitutes  in  a senseless  practice,  as  there  is 
nothing  cheaper  or  more  eifective  as  a disinfectant  than  bi- 
chloride of  mercury.  It  is  a deadly  poison  and  must  be 
kept  away  from  children,  and  the  containers  should  be 
plainly  labeled  so  that  unsuspecting  persons  may  not  be 
poisoned. 

14.  There  are  no  remedies  for  pear  blight,  and  all  so- 
called  patent  washes  or  other  “remedies”  should  be  avoid- 
ed. Anyone  who  claims  to  have  a cure  for  pear  blight  is  a 
“fake,”  and  should  be  treated  accordingly.  Those  having 
“remedies”  for  sale  have  no  standing  whatever;  if  thej? 
had  they  would  not  oppose  every  scientific  fact  known. 

15.  Summer  cutting  of  blight  should  always  be  done, 
but  the  work,  to  be  effective,  must  be  done  carefully. 
Always  be  sure  to  get  below  or  above  the  point  of  infec- 
tion. If  infection  is  found  in  a fruit  spur  or  water  sprout 
never  break  them  off  unless  you  know  how  far  the  infection 
has  gone.  There  is  no  further  danger  in  the  dead  spur,  but 
rather  in  the  infection  which  has  advanced  beyond  it. 
Breaking  off  the  spur  and  then  applying  the  disinfectant  is 
not  eradicating  the  blight.  Never  leave  an  infection  until 
you  know  that  there  is  no  further  danger  from  it.  Remem- 
ber there  is  no  such  thing  as  “pretty  good  work ;”  the  work 
is  either  good  or  bad. 


Control  of  Pear  Blight 


181 


16.  In  order  to  render  the  fighting  of  pear  blight  more 
easy,  trees  should  be  pruned  in  the  vase  or  open  head  form. 
Never  grow  a tree  with  a main  leader  or  center.  Keep  all 
water  sprouts  and  fruit  spurs  off  the  body  and  main  limbs 
of  the  tree.  Let  no  water  sprouts  come  up  from  the  crown 
of  the  tree  or  the  root  system.  Be  sure  to  cut  out  all 
crown  galls. 

17.  When  blight  is  prevalent  or  when  seasons  con- 
ducive to  blight  occur,  extreme  caution  should  be  used  in 
the  matter  of  using  stable  manure,  commercial  fertilizer  or 
applying  too  much  water.  Irrigation  practice  should  be 
studied  carefully,  not  only  in  connection  with  blight  control, 
but  with  benefits  or  injuries  which  may  result  to  the  soil. 

18.  The  only  way  to  keep  blight  under  control  is  to  in- 
crease the  inspection  and  make  it  rigid.  If  a grower  is 
caught  experimenting,  or  not  following  out  the  directions 
for  eradicating  blight  according  to  the  letter  of  the  law, 
force  him  by  law  to  do  whatever  the  inspector  has  ordered. 
I believe  besides  the  regular  corps  of  inspectors  we  should 
have  volunteer  inspectors  who  will  look  after  their  own  in- 
terests by  investigating  the  condition  of  neighboring  or- 
chards. Their  appointment  may  be  made  in  the  regular 
way,  making  them  officers  of  the  law  having  the  right  to 
enter  upon  a neighbor’s  premises.  If  this  had  been  done  in 
certain  districts  the  past  year,  several  infection  centers 
would  have  been  wiped  out.  There  would  have  been  no  in- 
fection and  a good  many  dollars  saved. 

19.  Lastly,  in  closing  permit  me  to  say  that  as  indi- 
viduals you  have  a right  and  a duty  to  follow  the  advice 
and  instructions  which  have  been  given  you  for  eradicating 
and  controlling  blight.  A government  officer,  who  has  had 
technical  and  practical  experience  all  over  the  United 
States  for  a period  of  years,  certainly  knows  the  situation, 
and  there  is  no  reason  for  doubting  his  words. 

As  a friend,  I ask  you  all  not  to  trifle  with  blight;  it  is 
too  serious  a matter.  The  value  of  the  fruit  interests  is 
too  great  to  be  trifled  away  by  individuals  who  have  neither 
knowledge  nor  practice  sufficient  to  devise  more  efficient 
means  than  have  already  been  worked  out  by  the  patho- 
logists of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 


182  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

whose  entire  energy  is  given  to  the  practical  side  of  fight- 
ing diseases.  You  have  a United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  therefore,  respect  the  advice  it  is  able  to  give 
you  through  its  agents. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


Or;9.ii  '!(:  !({' 

r! 

jri'i 

^'tii  ■' 

C)/:,  PREPARATION  OF  SPRAYING  MATERIALS. 
) ..  COMPILED  BY  J.  U.  MCPHERSON. 

[■,  'f' 

ijoj,:!  INSECT  PESTS. 


For  the  intelligent  and  practical  employment  of  insecti- 
cides, it  is  necessary  to  comprehend  the  nature  of  the 
pests  and  the  injury  inflicted  by  them.  The  great  mass  of 
harm^  to  growing  plants  from  insects,  falls  under  two  dis- 
tinct heads,  based  on  two  distinct  principles  of  food  econ- 
omy, viz..  Biting  insects,  (Mandibulate)  which  actually 
masti'cate  their  food  and  swallow  it,  and  sucking  insects 
(Hdustellate)  which  absorb  juices.  Each  group  involves 
a special  treatment.  For  insects  that  chew  and  swallow’ 
their;  food  (which  include  the  majority  of  dangerous 
larVse,  all  beetles,  and  the  locust  family)  the  best  method 
of  control  is  by  spraying  with  poison  that  may  be  safely 
applied  to  the  leaves  or  other  parts  of  the  plant  attacked. 
Thus  the  insect  will  swallow  a portion  of  the  poison  with 


its  food.Mf 

.{>[{  Poison  (Should  never  be  applied  where  the  parts  them- 
selves are  to  be  shortly  used  for  food,  either  by  man  or 
beast.  Spraying  under  this  head  must  be  done  when  the 
foliage  is  on  the  trees. 

All  sucking  insects  are  destroyed  by  applying  insecti- 
cides directly  to  them  or  to  their  eggs  in  the  dormant 
season  (killing^ by  contact)  as  it  is  impossible  to  poison 
them  on  account jpf  theirv^method  of,  feeding,  which  is  by 
inserting  their  proboscis  and  sucking  sap  rfrom  the  plant. 
The  application  can  be  made  either  in  summer  or  winter, 
as  the  base  may  b^  ^ 

OU  DlUv'-i  //  \ ':i!  ill^n  b o)  if. 

si  n i ' l 'V  ; ■ FUNGUS  DISEASES."!  j . rp^t  0 -9.9 

VR  Cultivated  plants*  are i beset  by  many  enemies,  n Some  of 
these  belong  to  i the  i animal  and  * some  to  the  ’ vegetable 
kingdom,  [ft  To^  the  former  belong  the  ^unsects,  and  j to  the 


184  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

latter  the  parasitic  fungi.  By  the  development  of  these 
parasites  on  growing  plants  or  trees,  the  peculiar  malady 
known  as  fungus  diseases  is  produced.  The  term  “fungi” 
takes  within  its  scope  the  lower  forms  of  plant  life,  such 
as  molds,  mildews,  rusts,  blights  and  similar  organizations. 
Instead  of  growing  in  the  earth  as  do  trees  or  bushes,  they 
grow  on,  and  take  their  nourishment,  for  the  most  part, 
from  the  higher  orders  of  plants  that  we  cultivate  in  our 
orchards  and  gardens.  Parasitic  fungi  in  many  of  their 
forms  are  enemies  of  the  farmer  and  fruit  grower,  par- 
tially, and  often  entirely,  destroying  the  crops.  Spraying 
for  fruit  diseases  is  preventative  rather  than  curative. 
The  work  of  prevention  should  begin  in  the  dormant  sea- 
son, when  strong  remedies  may  be  used  to  destroy  the 
spores  or  germs.  This  can  be  thoroughly  done  at  this 
season,  on  account  of  the  absence  of  any  foliage.  For  all 
fungus  diseases,  there  is  no  better  remedy  in  the  dormant 
season  than  Remedy  No.  1 given  in  this  report;  and  for 
spraying  for  fungus  diseases  when  plants  are  in  leaf,  all 
things  considered,  the  Bordeaux  mixture  has  been  found 
the  most  effectual. 


REMEDY  NO.  1. 

To  be  used  in  the  dormant  season  for  scale,  pear  leaf 
blister-mite,  aphis  eggs,  etc.,  or  fungus  diseases  of  any  kind. 

Formula, 


Sulphur  20  lbs. 

Unslacked  lime  40  lbs. 

Water  60  gals. 


For  a greater  or  less  quantity  the  ratio  would  be  1 lb. 
salt,  2 lbs.  sulphur,  4 lbs.  lime  to  every  6 gals,  water. 

Directions — Place  20  gallons  of  water  in  a boiler  and 
heat  to  a boiling  point.  (The  amount  of  water  should  be 
varied  according  to  the  size  of  the  boiler).  While  this  is 
being  done,  place  the  lime,  sulphur  and  salt  in  a large 
barrel  or  vat  and  slake  the  lime  by  adding  water  in  suffi- 
cient quantities  to  do  so  properly,  keeping  it  well  stirred. 


Preparation  of  Spraying  Materials  185 

mixing  the  lime,  sulphur  and  salt  thoroughly.  When  this 
operation  is  completed  add  enough  water  to  the  contents  of 
the  barrel  or  vat  to  reduce  it  to  a somewhat  thick  liquid 
and  strain  the  mixture  into  the  boiler.  (Common  wire 
window  screen  netting  fastened  to  a wooden  frame  is  the 
best).  Boil  the  mixture  for  one  and  one-half  hours,  or 
longer.  When  ready  for  use,  dilute  with  enough  water  to 
make  60  gallons.  Use  this  spray  hot,  as  better  results  are 
obtained. 

In  extreme  cases  of  scale  two  sprayings,  a few  days 
apart,  should  be  resorted  to. 

This  mixture  is  seldom  used  now,  the  manufactured 
preparation  taking  its  place. 

REMEDY  NO.  2. 

For  codling  moth,  or  leaf  eating  insects. 

Formula, 

Six  ounces  Paris  green  diluted  with  50  gallons  of  water. 

Directions — Place  the  poison  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
powdered  lime  in  a small  vessel  with  enough  water  to  make 
a thin  paste.  Let  it  stand  for  about  10  hours  before  using. 
Keep  the  liquid  well  agitated  when  spraying,  in  order  that 
it  may  be  evenly  distributed  on  the  tree. 

REMEDY  NO.  3. 

For  codling  moth,  or  leaf  eating  insects. 

Formula, 


White  arsenic  (powdered)  1 pound 

Salsoda  (lump)  4 pounds 

Water 1 gallon 


Directions — Place  arsenic  and  salsoda  in  a vessel  con- 
taining one  gallon  of  hot  water  and  boil  for  15  minutes,  or 
until  it  is  all  dissolved.  Put  the  liquid  in  a jug,  cork  it  up 
and  label  it  “Poison’’  in  the  plainest  manner,  and  lock  it 
up  securely  until  needed. 


186 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


Use  1 pint  ,of  this  liquid  to.  each  50  gallons  of  water, 
adding  three  pounds  of  quick-lime,  slaked  in  .water,  before 
using.  ^ 

Note — For  the  last  spray  use  6 lbs.  of  salsoda 
in  preparing  the  arsenic  and  use  1 quart  of  glucose  to  each 
50  gallons  of  the  spray,  instead  of  the  lime.  This  is 
advisable  in  order  to  avoid  having  so  much  lime  on  the 
apples  at  picking  time.  ' ‘ ^ J , ' 


REMEDY  NO.  4. — LEAD  ARSENATE.  , 

For  codling  moth,  or  leaf  eating  insects.  b .nrb? 

• . It ->1  no! 

Formula, 


Arsenate  of  lead "::^.:!...5  to  6 pounds 

Water  .v-w...... ,.100r  gallons 


REMEDY  NO.  5. 

For  Aphis.  ■ ri  q zi  ■ 


Forrrmla 

' > aff;  ; b -rroc] 

American  concentrated  lye  pounds  ^ ntd'  p 


Resin  r- r6/  pounds  ■ ( 

Water  .........q.....55  gallons^n  b 


Directions — Place  the  lie  and  resin  in  a boiler  holding 
25  gallons  of  water.  Boil  until  the  lye  and  resin  are  dis- 
solved. Strain  into  the  spraying  tank,  or  barrel,  adding 
enough  warm  water  to  make  50  gallons.  Use  hot,  as  the 
resin  will  precipitate  if  the  liquid  gets  cold. 

REMEDY  NO.  6.  p 

Formula  lajH 

Whale  oil  soap 1 pound 

Kerosene 2 gallons 

Water  1 gallon. 

A good  grade  of  hard  or  soft  soap  may  be  used. 


' IViaij 

• a f 

1 - 


Preparation  of  Spraying  Matei'ials  187 

Directions — Dissolve  the  soap  in  one  gallon  of  water  by 
heating.  Remove  from  the  fire.  While  hot,  add  two  gal- 
lons of  kerosene  and  churn  the  liquid  with  a force  pump 
by  pumping  the  liquid  back  into  the  vessel  that  contains  it 
until  a perfect  emulsion  is  formed.  It  will  then  be  a 
creamy  substance.  One  gallon  of  the  mixture  should  be 
diluted  with  9 gallons  of  water  when  spraying  apples,  pears 
or  prunes.  When  used  on  peaches  and  rose  bushes,  it 
should  be  diluted  1 gallon  to  15  gallons  of  water. 

REMEDY  NO.  7. 

The  Bordeaux  Mixture — For  fungus  diseases,  to  be 
used  in  the  summer  time. 

Formula 


Water  60  gallons 

Copper  sulphate  6 pounds 

Unslaked  lime  4 pounds 


Directions — Dissolve  6 pounds  of  copper  sulphate 
(bluestone)  in  water  in  a wooden  vessel  to  prevent  corro- 
sion of  metal.  It  dissolves  most  readily  in  hot  water.  Add 
several  gallons  of  water.  Reduce  4 to  6 pounds  of  good 
lime,  that  which  has  not  been  air-slacked,  to  a lime-milk, 
by  the  slow  addition  of  water  and  constant  stirring  with  a 
hoe.  Add  several  gallons  of  water.  Strain  both  bluestone, 
water  and  milk  of  lime  through  a wire  screen  into  a com- 
mon wooden  tub,  mix  carefully  with  a hoe,  until  a pretty 
blue  mixture  is  the  result.  Pour  this  mixture  into  your 
spray-barrel,  add  water  enough  to  make  45  gallons  in  all, 
stir  well  with  a hoe,  or  with  an  automatic  stirrer  in  the 
barrel,  when  the  mixture  is  ready  for  use.  The  writer 
prefers  the  use  of  the  hoe  in  all  cases  to  any  automatic 
device.  Cut  a hole  in  the  spray  barrel,  large  enough  to 
hold  the  entering  pipe  to  the  pump  and  allow  the  insertion 
of  a hoe  as  well.  The  man  who  manages  the  pump  can, 
at  the  same  time,  occasionally  stir  up  the  mixture. 

TESTING. 

To  determine  whether  the  mixture  is  perfect,  that  is, 


188  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

if  it  will  be  safe  to  apply  to  tender  foliage,  a simple  test 
may  be  used.  Insert  the  bright  blade  of  a penknife  in  the 
mixture,  allowing  it  to  remain  there  for  at  least  one  minute. 
If  metallic  copper  forms  on  the  blade,  or,  in  other  words, 
if  the  polished  surface  of  the  steel  assumes  the  color  of 
copper  plate,  the  mixture  is  unsafe  and  more  lime  must  be 
added.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  blade  of  the  knife  re- 
mains unchanged,  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  the  mixture 
is  as  perfect  as  can  be  made. 

STOCK  MIXTURE. 

If  spraying  is  to  be  done  on  a large  scale,  it  will  be 
found  much  more  convenient  and  economical  in  every  way 
to  prepare  what  are  known  as  stock  solutions  of  both 
the  copper  and  the  lime.  To  prepare  a stock  solution  of 
copper  sulphate,  procure  a barrel  holding  50  gallons,  weigh 
out  a hundred  pounds  of  copper  sulphate  and  after  tying 
it  in  a sack,  suspend  it  so  that  it  will  hang  as  near  the  top 
of  the  barrel  as  possible,  fill  the  barrel  with  water,  and  in 
two  or  three  days  the  copper  will  be  dissolved.  Now  remove 
the  sack  and  add  enough  water  to  bring  the  solution  to  the 
50  gallon  mark  previously  marked  on  the  barrel.  It  will 
be  understood,  of  course,  that  this  second  adding  of 
water  is  merely  to  replace  the  space  previously  occupied 
by  the  sack  and  the  crystals  of  the  copper  sulphate.  Each 
gallon  of  the  solution  thus  made  will  contain  two  pounds  of 
copper  sulphate. 

Under  all  ordinary  conditions  of  temperature  there  will 
be  no  material  recrystalization,  so  that  the  stock  prepara- 
tion may  be  kept  indefinitely.  Stock  lime  may  be  prepared 
in  much  the  same  way  as  the  copper  sulphate  solution.  Pro- 
cure a barrel  holding  50  gallons,  making  a mark  to  indicate 
the  50  gallon  point,  weigh  out  100  pounds  of  fresh  lime, 
place  in  the  barrel  and  slack  it.  When  slacked,  add  sufficient 
water  to  bring  the  whole  mass  up  to  50  gallons.  Each  gal- 
lon of  this  preparation  contains,  after  thorough  stirring, 
2 pounds  of  lime.  When  it  is  desired  to  make  Bordeaux 
mixture  of  the  50  gallon  formula,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
measure  out  3 gallons  of  the  stock  copper  solution,  and 


Preparation  of  Spraying  Materials 


189 


after  thoroughly  stirring,  2 gallons  of  stock  lime.  Dilute 
each  to  25  gallons,  mix,  stir  and  test  as  already  described. 
One  test  will  be  sufficient  in  this  case;  in  other  words,  it 
will  not  be  necessary  to  test  each  lot  of  Bordeaux  mixture 
made  from  the  stock  preparation,  provided  the  first  lot  is 
perfect  and  no  change  is  made  in  the  quantities  used. 
Special  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  lime-milk  is 
stirred  thoroughly  before  applying.  As  a final  precaution 
it  will  be  well  to  keep  the  stock  copper  sulphate  and  stock 
lime  tightly  covered. 


REMEDY  NO.  8. 
For  Aphis, 
Formula 


Whale  oil  soap  1 pound 

Quassia  chips  1 pound 

Water  10  gallons 

Directions — Boil  the  quassia  chips  in  two  gallons  of 
water  for  two  hours.  In  another  vessel  dissolve  the  whale 
oil  soap  in  two  gallons  of  water  by  heating.  Mix  the  two 
together  and  dilute  to  10  gallons.  Warm  water  is  prefer- 
able. 


REMEDY  NO.  9. 
For  Cabbage  Aphis. 
Formula 


Whale  oil  soap  1 pound 

Water  10  gallons 

(Any  good  grade  of  hard  soap  will  answer). 

Directions — Dissolve  the  soap  by  heating  in  one  gallon 
of  water;  then  add  nine  gallons  of  water  to  this.  Spray 
the  infested  plants  with  an  atomizer  or  hand  pump  with  the 
nozzle  turned  so  the  under  side,  or  any  part  of  the  leaves 
can  be  reached.  Apply  with  as  much  force  as  possible,  so 
that  the  mixture  comes  in  contact  with  the  insects.  From 


190  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

one  to  three  applications  of  this  will  rid  the  garden  of  this 
pest. 


REMEDY  NO.  10. 

For  ants  or  other  insects  living  underground — bisulphide 

of  carbon. 

Locate  the  ant  mound  or  nest.  Take  a small  iron  bar 
or  other  instrument  and  penetrate,  the  ground  to  the 
proper  depth  about  1 foot  apart,  over  the  infested  area. 
Pour  in  about  1 tablespoonful  of  carbon  in  each  hole,  im- 
mediately covering  the  hole  with  earth.  One  treatment  is 
usually  sufficient. 

Caution — Bi-sulphide  of  carbon  is  an  explosive  and  no 
fire  should  be  allowed  near  it. 

ANIMAL  PESTS  AND  REMEDIES. 

JACKRABBITS. 

A good  rabbit-tight  fence  is  the  best  and  safest  remedy, 
but  in  the  absence  of  this  some  other  safeguard  should  be 
sought  for.  Trunks  of  trees  may  be  protected  by  wooden 
guards  made  of  slats  woven  together  with  wire,  or  by  being 
wrapped  with  cloth,  burlap  or  even  good,  strong  paper. 
For  destroying  jackrabbits  in  a wholesale  way  the  follow- 
ing remedy  is  good: 

Dissolve  1 ounce  of  strychnine  in  5 gallons  of  water  by 
heating.  Place  a small  bundle  of  good  clover  or  alfalfa 
hay  in  an  inclosure  where  no  domestic  animals  can  get  to 
it,  yet  open  enough  for  the  rabbit  to  get  at  the  hay. 
Thoroughly  dampen  it  with  the  liquid  poison.  In  the 
absence  of  other  food  the  rabbits  will  eat  the  hay,  which 
means  certain  death  to  them. 

Caution — Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  all  other  animals 
away  from  the  poisoned  hay  and  what  remains  after  the 
desired  results  are  obtained  should  be  burned  without 
delay. 


Preparation  of  Spraying  Materials 


191 


MICE. 

Mice  sometimes  become  quite  a serious  pest,  eating  the 
bark  from  the  roots  near  the  surface  and  as  high  on  the 
body  of  the  tree  as  they  can  reach. 

Treatment — Keep  all  rubbish  out  of  the  orchard.  Clear 
away  all  of  the  grass  and  weeds  around  the  trees  and  do 
not  allow  the  trees  to  be  banked  up  with  earth,  as  it  makes 
a harbor  for  the  mice.  Use  one  of  the  formulas  for  pois- 
oned grain  given  below. 

Remedy — Dissolve  1 ounce  of  strychnine  in  2 ounces 
of  acetic  acid.  Then  add  one  ounce  of  oil  of  rhodium. 
Dilute  with  enough  water  to  thoroughly  soak  one  bushel  of 
wheat.  Scatter  the  wheat  around  the  trees  and  near  the 
runways  where  the  mice  are  found.  One  tablespoonful 
will  usually  be  sufficient  in  one  place. 

Caution — Keep  the  fowls  away  from  the  poisoned 
wheat. 


KANSAS  FORMULA  FOR  POISON  FOR  MICE. 

Remedy  No.  2 — One  ounce  of  green  coffee  berries  are 
pulverized  and  mixed  with  the  whites  of  two  eggs  and 
allowed  to  stand  for  at  least  fourteen  hours.  An  ounce 
of  strychnia  sulphate  is  dissolved  in  half  a pint  of  boil- 
ing water.  To  mix,  add  a little  warm  water  to  the  coffee 
egg  mixture,  and  after  stirring  well  strain  this  through  a 
coarse  sieve  into  the  mixing  vessel.  Then  add  a pint  of 
molasses  or  syrup.  To  the  hot  solution  of  strychnine  add 
one  and  one-half  ounces  of  alcohol,  and  pour  this  into  the 
other  mixture  slowly,  stirring  thoroughly. 

The  mixture  can  now  be  put  into  a glass  jar  and  used 
at  any  time.  The  amounts  above  mentioned  should  do  for 
half  a bushel  of  wheat  or  rye,  and  the  grain  can  be  pois- 
oned in  any  quantity  desired  at  a time  by  pouring  over  it 
the  proper  amount  of  liquid  and  mixing  thoroughly,  so 
that  each  grain  gets  its  portion;  then  spread  out  on  paper 
to  dry.  Do  not  forget  that  you  are  working  with  a deadly 
poison,  so  do  not  run  any  risks.  Keep  it  where  neither 
children  nor  valuable  fowls  may  get  it.  A few  grains  in 
or  near  each  burrow  will  do  the  work. 


^laiiua]  oT  Har tic Lil  1 lire,  Idaho. 


PLATJ-]  XXJX. 


WAGENEK 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


REPORTS  OF  DISTRICT  INSPECTORS. 

District  No.  1. 

Coeu7‘  (VAlene,  Idaho. 

Mr.  John  U.  McPherson, 

State  Horticultural  Inspector, 

Boise,  Idaho. 

Dear  Sir — As  requested  I send  report  of  District  No.  1, 
comprised  of  Bonner,  Kootenai  and  Shoshone  counties,  for 
the  years  1911  and  1912. 

I am  glad  to  report  that  our  nurserymen  ship  in  much 
better  trees  than  when  I first  inspected  stock  in  1907,  and  I 
think  the  credit  is  partly  due  to  our  inspection  law,  and 
will  say  the  same  about  our  orchards.  We  have  clean  fruit 
because  all  orchardists  are  compelled  to  spray,  and  if  the 
horticultural  appropriation  were  three  times  as  large,  then 
the  field  workers  could  boast  of  one  of  the  cleanest  fruit 
states  in  the  Union,  but  where  an  inspector  is  limited  to 
one  hundred  days  a year,  he  does  not  get  time  to  go  over 
his  district. 

In  District  No.  1,  in  1911,  262,600  trees  were  planted, 
and  in  1912,  221,460  were  planted,  making  orchard  acreage 
up  to  November  5th,  1912,  16,423  acres. 

I have  traveled,  through  the  years  1911  and  1912,  3,084 
miles. 

All  our  truck  and  large  orchardists  are  spraying  now, 
this  fall,  with  sulphur-lime  spray,  10  to  1.  We  have  no 
San  Jose  scale  in  this  district,  but  we  have  the  rest,  includ- 
ing scab,  which  is  harder  to  fight  than  an}^  other  pest,  as 
we  have  40  inches  of  precipitation  in  this  locality. 

The  number  of  trees  planted  in  the  past  five  years  are: 
1907,  1,714  aci^s;  1908,  6,540;  1910,  8,403;  1911,  13,655; 
1912,  16,423. 

The  largest  amount  of  appropriation  for  one  year's 


194  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

work  ever  allowed  this  district,  and  I to  pay  my  own 
expenses,  was  $500,  not  one-third  enough  to  do  the  work. 

Yours  sincerely, 

(Signed)  William  Buckley, 

Deputy  Inspector,  Dist.  No.  1. 

District  No.  2. 

Moscow,  Idaho. 

Mr.  J.  U.  McPherson, 

State  Horticultural  Inspector, 

Boise,  Idaho. 

Dear  Sir — I respectfully  submit  the  following  report  for 
District  No.  2,  which  comprises  all  of  Latah  county  and 
that  part  of  Nez  Perce  county  situated  north  of  the  rim- 
rock.  It  is  fifty  miles  long  and  from  thirty  to  forty  miles 
wide.  The  railroad  connections  are  very  bad  and  it  is 
necessary  to  travel  on  two  different  railroads  to  get  to 
many  points  in  my  district,  the  greater  part  of  the  travel- 
ing being  done  through  Washington. 

There  are  a number  of  very  good  commercial  orchards 
in  bearing  at  this  time,  and  a large  number  of  orchards 
are  set  out  each  year. 

Latah  county  has  become  quite  famous  in  the  past  two 
years  for  its  apples.  In  1911  the  Wagner  apples  in  Latah 
county  took  sweepstakes  at  the  National  Apple  Show  at 
Spokane,  and  in  1912  we  took  second  prize  at  the  Apple 
Show  on  our  mixed  car. 

The  principal  varieties  of  apples  raised  here  are  the 
Rome  Beauty,  Wagner  and  Jonathan.  Many  other  varie- 
ties are  grown  in  this  district,  but  these  I consider  our  best 
apples.  Most  any  variety  of  small  fruit  can  be  raised 
here,  but  very  little  of  such  fruit  is  raised  commercially. 

Our  crop  of  apples  for  1911  was  only  about  two-thirds 
of  what  it  has  been  for  1912.  We  have  an  exceptionally 
large  crop  this  year,  as  is  reported  from  all  districts,  and 
the  growers  report  that  it  is  hard  to  market  their  fruit. 
However,  there  has  been  a good  cannery  installed  at 
Juliaetta,  and  a good  vinegar  factory  at  Moscow.  The 


Reports  of  District  Inspectors 


195 


two  by-products  houses  are  aiding  the  farmers  in  disposing 
of  their  products. 

The  worst  pests  with  which  we  have  to  contend  in  my 
district  are  codling  moth,  blight,  apple  scab,  and  scale  in 
the  southwestern  part.  The  codling  moth  has  not  been 
very  bad  this  year,  but  the  apple  scab  has  been  quite  bad, 
owing  to  the  heavy  rainfall  in  our  county.  The  blight  is 
getting  quite  badly  scattered,  and  needs  close  attention 
to  prevent  it  spreading  further  infection.  The  scale  is 
quite  a problem  in  and  around  Juliaetta,  as  it  is  found 
on  most  all  the  underbrush  for  miles  up  and  down  the 
creek.  Some  of  this  land  is  state  land  and  will  have  to  be 
cleaned  up  by  the  state. 

We  must  have  more  money  to  carry  on  the  inspection 
work,  or  little  or  no  headway  can  be  made.  District  No. 
2 is  allowed  $400.00  per  year,  but  some  additional  sums 
have  been  added  to  this  each  year  by  the  Board.  There  is 
absolutely  nothing  in  the  work  for  a man  at  wage  per 
year,  when  you  take  into  consideration  his  board  and  other 
expenses. 

The  fruit  growers  are  much  interested  in  inspection 
work  and  I believe,  with  a combined  effort,  that  we  can 
get  a good  appropriation  to  carry  on  the  inspection  work 
in  the  state  this  coming  year. 

I presented  a petition  to  the  county  commissioners, 
which  was  signed  by  the  leading  fruit  growers  of  my  dis- 
trict, asking  for  a sum  of  money  to  carry  on  the  work, 
but  they  were  unable  to  help  out  in  our  work  this  year. 

Respectfully  yours, 

(Signed)  W.  C.  Edmundson, 

Deputy  Inspector,  Dist.  No,  2. 

District  No.  3. 

Lewiston,  Idaho. 

Mr.  J.  U.  McPherson, 

State  Horticultural  Inspector,  Boise,  Idaho. 

Dear  Sir — At  your  request,  I submit  the  following  re- 
port as  to  the  general  conditions  of  the  orchards  in  Nez 
Perce  county. 


196 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


I consider  the  orchards  in  this  district  to  be  in  first 
class  condition,  especially  do  I find  the  commercial  orchards 
well  taken  care  of,  and  almost  entirely  free  from  the 
various  pests  and  diseases.  Spraying  for  scale,  moth  and 
scab  has  become  general  throughout  the  district. 

The  fruit  growers  of  this  district  are  much  in  sympathy 
with  the  inspection  work,  and  they  are  beginning  to  realize 
the  benefits  derived  from  it. 

All  nursery  stock  shipped  into  this  district  is  carefully 
inspected  and  will  do  much  towards  preventing  the  spread- 
ing of  the  different  diseases  and  pests. 

The  acreage  of  commercial  orchards  is  steadily  increas- 
ing, about  five  hundred  acres  being  planted  yearly,  while 
some  of  the  old  farm  orchards  of  poor  varieties  are  being 
taken  out. 

I believe  the  fruit  trees  of  this  section,  at  this  season 
of  the  year,  to  be  in  prime  condition  for  wintering,  and  to 
be  generally  free  from  all  injurious  diseases. 

In  carrying  on  the  work  this  year  of  1912,  I have  trav- 
eled 1,650  miles. 

Yours  respectfully, 

(Signed)  George  E.  Ames, 

Deputy  Inspector,  Dist.  No.  3. 

District  No.  4. 

The  work  of  this  district  was  placed  in  the  hands  of 
Henry  T.  Murray,  of  Grangeville,  Idaho,  April  1911,  when 
he  was  appointed  Deputy  Inspector  for  that  district,  and 
Mr.  Murray  continued  in  the  work  until  June,  1912,  when 
he  resigned  and  went  into  business  for  himself. 

District  No.  4 comprises  the  counties  of  Idaho,  Clear- 
water and  Lewis,  and  has  only  a very  small  appropriation 
allotted  to  it  considering  the  size  of  the  district  and  the 
amount  of  travel  which  is  necessary  in  order  to  reach  the 
different  fruit  districts.  However,  during  the  months 
when  Mr.  Murray  was  inspector  he  traveled  2,163  miles, 
and  worked  16314  days.  He  inspected  160%  acres  of 
apples,  10 ‘/j  of  pears,  and  445  acres  of  mixed  fruit  besides 
758  town  lots. 


Reports  of  District  Inspectors 


197 


Mr.  John  A.  Powell  of  Orangeville  was  appointed  in 
September  to  hll  the  urexpired  term  in  this  divstrict  and  his 
report  for  the  period  follows: 

Grangeville,  Idaho. 

Mr.  John  U.  McPherson, 

State  Horticultural  Inspector, 

Boise,  Idaho. 

Dear  Sir — In  compliance  with  your  request,  I wish  to 
give  a general  report  of  the  work  in  this  district  for  the 
unexpired  term  of  my  predecessor,  and  for  the  time  only 
that  I have  been  in  office.  I find  that  general  conditions 
in  the  orchards  of  this  district,  as  far  as  I am  able  to 
judge,  are  above  the  average  for  this  time  of  the  year. 
Regarding  the  increase  in  orchards  for  the  three  months 
I have  filled  the  position  of  deputy  inspector,  shipments  of 
trees  in  the  district  are  about  as  follows: 

Apples,  1,400;  pears,  400;  peaches,  650;  prunes  and 
plums,  300;  cherries,  1,400;  berries,  3,000.  As  regards  the 
acreage,  I cannot  tell  increase  until  same  are  planted. 

Number  of  miles  traveled  in  pursuance  of  official  duties 
for  October,  210;  November,  291;  December,  324,  making 
a total  of  825. 

I find  that  people  generally  are  becoming  more  inter- 
ested in  horticulture,  and  are  giving  the  same  more  atten- 
tion and  are  making  marked  progress  in  the  eradication  of 
diseases. 

Respectfully  yours, 

(Signed)  John  A.  Powell, 

Deputy  Inspector,  Dist.  No. 

District  No.  5. 

Cambridge,  Idaho. 

Mr.  J.  U.  McPherson, 

State  Horticultural  Impector,  Boise,  Idaho. 

Dear  Sir — Complying  with  your  request  of  recent  date 
I herewith  submit  report  of  work  done  and  miles  traveled 
by  me  as  deputy  inspector  of  District  No.  5 in  1911  and 
1912. 


198  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

I began  my  duties  as  inspector  of  this  district  in  April, 
1911,  following  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Featherston,  my 
predecessor,  who  had  done  commendable  work  in  bringing 
the  orchard  conditions  in  this  district  up  to  a higher 
standard  than  had  heretofore  been  attained. 

This  district  is  composed  of  Washington  and  Adams 
counties.  Adams  county  has  a greated  altitude  than  Wash- 
ington, hence  a cooler  and  shorter  season.  The  cool  nights 
of  Adams  county  seem  to  be  unfavorable  to  insect  pests 
of  the  lower  country,  so  that,  as  yet,  spraying  has  not 
become  necessary  in  this  county. 

We  have  the  scale  and  codling  moth  both  well  under 
control,  but  the  blight  has  given  us  much  concern  in  nearly 
every  part  of  the  district.  In  some  parts  of  the  district  it 
has  been  very  troublesome.  We  have  been  waging  war 
upon  it  by  removing  all  the  blighted  branches  and  burning 
them,  and  in  some  instances  destroying  the  whole  tree. 
There  are  some  very  excellent  fruit  lands  in  both  counties, 
and  orchards  are  much  in  evidence.  In  1911  there  was  not 
more  than  a one-fourth  crop  harvested,  while  the  year 
1912  has  given  an  abundant  harvest. 

We  have  7,000  acres  of  fruit  trees  in  this  district,  about 
6,000  acres  of  which  are  apples,  and  about  1,000  acres 
of  prunes  and  peaches,  with  a few  acres  of  pears.  In  1911 
we  shipped  24  cars  of  prunes,  and  about  50  cars  of  apples, 
also  10,000  crates  of  peaches,  while  in  1912,  we  have 
shipped  50  cars  of  prunes,  and  have  packed  131,950  boxes 
of  apples,  only  a part  of  which  have  been  shipped.  Also 
1,300  boxes  of  pears,  while  the  peach  pack  will  scarcely 
reach  1,000  boxes. 

During  the  two  years  to  November  1,  1912,  I have 
worked  2821/?  days,  and  traveled  5,299  miles. 

In  conclusion,  I would  say  that  there  is  preparation 
being  made  to  plant  quite  a large  acreage  the  coming  year 
and  it  is  hoped  by  all  the  commercial  orchardists  that  the 
inspection  work  will  be  made  more  and  more  proficient, 
consequently  more  funds  will  be  needed  to  carry  on  the 
work  in  a proper  manner. 

Yours  very  respectfully, 

(Signed)  D.  B.  Webber, 

Deputy  Inspector,  Dist,  No.  5. 


Reports  of  District  Inspectors  199 

District  No.  6. 

Payette,  Idaho. 

Mr.  J.  U.  McPherson, 

State  Horticidtural  Inspector, 

Boise,  Idaho. 

Dear  Sir — Complying  with  your  request,  I submit  the 
following  report  for  District  No.  6,  for  1912.  As  my 
appointment  began  March  16,  1912,  and  this  being  my  first 
season,  I cannot  give  a full  report  for  the  biennial  season. 
My  predecessor  worked  for  some  time,  for  which  I have 
no  account. 

District  No.  6 comprises  the  north  half  of  Canyon 
county,  covering  the  entire  Payette  river  valley,  a portion 
of  the  Snake  river  valley,  and  extends  about  seven  miles 
below  the  city  of  Payette,  and  includes  all  of  Boise 
county.  The  orchard  interests  in  Boise  county  are  small, 
so  the  most  of  the  inspector’s  work  lies  in  the  Payette 
valley. 

The  principal  fruits  shipped  from  this  valley  are  apples 
and  prunes,  the  principal  varieties  of  apples  being  Jona- 
than, Rome  Beauty,  Winesap,  Arkansas  Black,  Grimes 
Golden,  Gano  and  Ben  Davis.  Of  the  prunes,  the  Italian. 
Of  the  peaches.  Early  and  Late  Crawford,  and  Elberta. 
Pears,  Barttett,  Anjou  and  Winter  Nellis.  All  kinds  of 
berries  and  small  fruits  do  well,  but  are  not  raised  to  any 
great  extent.  I think  the  fruit  crop  over  the  entire  dis- 
trict is  fully  as  good,  or  better,  than  ever  before,  and 
the  orchards  are  in  fine  condition.  I found  considerable 
San  Jose  scale  in  the  spring,  but  I believe  all  have  sprayed, 
and  I see  very  little  at  this  time.  Orchardists  have  also 
sprayed  for  codling  moth  pretty  thoroughly,  so  I would 
estimate  that  about  85%  of  the  apples  are  free  from 
worms  and  scale. 

As  near  as  I can  estimate  the  number  of  acres  in  Dis- 
trict No.  6 are  as  follows:  Apples,  21,816;  prunes,  1,349; 
peaches,  1,521 ; pears,  467 ; mixed  fruit,  560,  making  in 
all  about  25,713  acres,  about  one-tenth  of  which  is  in 
bearing. 

Up  to  November  15,  1912,  there  has  been  shipped  520 


200 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


cars  of  apples,  287  cars  of  prunes,  50  cars  of  peaches,  5 
cars  of  pears,  and  about  3,600  crates  of  fruit  by  express, 
besides  numerous  small  shipments  by  freight.  There 
remains  about  300  cars  of  apples  to  be  shipped  which  are 
now  in  storage. 

The  number  of  days  employed  in  inspection  so  far  is 
158,  and  miles  traveled  about  3,822. 

In  closing  I will  say  that  I have  the  support  of  prac- 
tically all  the  growers  of  this  district.  Some  of  the 
small  orchardists  have  not  always  shown  the  disposition 
to  comply  with  the  law,  but  I have  finally  induced  them 
to  meet  its  requirements  without  recourse  to  the  court. 

Hoping  this  report  will  meet  with  your  approval,  I 
remain, 

Very  truly, 

(Signed)  A.  B.  Kern, 

Deputy  Inspector,  Dist.  No,  6. 

District  No.  7. 

Caldwell,  Idaho. 

Mr.  John  U.  McPherson, 

State  Horticidtural  Inspector, 

Boise,  Idaho. 

Dear  Sir — Complying  with  your  request  I herewith 
submit  a brief  report  of  the  horticultural  inspection 
work  done  during  the  years  1911-1912  in  my  district. 
No.  7,  which  comprises  all  of  Owyhee  county  and  the 
Boise  valley  in  Canyon  county. 

I was  appointed  inspector  the  latter  part  of  March, 
1911,  consequently  this  report  will  not  cover  the  entire 
period  of  the  years  1911-1912,  as  quite  a lot  of  work  was 
done  by  my  predecessor. 

Since  the  report  of  1910,  the  acreage  in  this  district  has 
vastly  increased,  and  while  I have  not  visited  all  the  new 
orchards  the  following  is  a fairly  accurate  amount  of  the 
various  kinds  of  fruit  grown : 

Apples,  14,000  acres;  prunes,  650  acres;  pears,  125 
acres ; Peaches,  140  acres ; small  fruits,  such  as  raspberries, 
dewberries  and  strawberries,  175  acres. 


iMaiiuai  of  florliciil  Lure,  Idaho. 


J'hATi-]  XXX. 


AN.IOn  PEAR 


Reports  of  District  Inspectors 


201 


The  year  1911  was  almost  a failure  in  the  fruit  line, 
owing  to  heavy  freezes  and  hail  in  parts  of  my  district, 
for  instance,  the  Parma-Roswell  country  had  a hail  which 
injured  the  fruit  so  that  little  was  shipped  from  that 
point.  Caldwell,  Nampa  and  Middleton  regions  were  short 
from  freezes.  There  were  shipped  from  this  district  dur- 
ing the  year  but  43  cars  of  apples  and  49  of  prunes. 
Apples  netted  about  $1.10  per  box,  prunes  about  50  cents 
per  crate.  The  year  1912  was  an  exceptionally  good  fruit 
year,  135  cars  of  apples  and  54  of  prunes  being  shipped, 
besides  there  are  in  storage  about  20  cars  of  apples.  There 
was  nearly  150,000  pounds  of  dried  prunes,  of  which  about 
50,000  are  sold  at  this  writing  at  6^2  cents  per  pound. 
I am  unable  to  give  net  prices  for  apples  as  the  returns  of 
sales  are  not  available.  Prunes  netted  about  50  cents  per 
Cl  ate. 

Upon  taking  charge  of  this  work  I found  that  there 
was  in  every  orchard  San  Jose  scale  to  some  extent,  and  in 
one  or  two  instances  it  was  quite  bad,  but  I am  glad  to 
report  at  this  time  there  is  but  little  to  be  found  in  any 
of  the  orchards.  I find  most  of  the  trouble  in  controlling 
pests  and  diseases  is  to  be  found  on  town  lots  where  the 
owners  are  not  interested,  but  the  farmers  and  fruit  grow- 
ers are  anxious  and  willing  to  eradicate  the  pests  and  dis- 
eases and  to  co-operate  with  the  Department  in  so  doing. 
The  season  of  1912  was  quite  bad  in  the  way  of  blight 
during  the  months  of  June,  July  and  August,  and  we  made 
a hard  campaign  on  it  and  caused  most  of  the  blight  to  be 
cut  out.  The  crops  this  season  are  practically  free  from 
codling  moth.  I believe  95%  of  the  apples  are  free  from 
worms  owing  to  the  growers  spraying  so  well  for  the 
codling  moth,  and  I find  that  where  the  power  sprayer  is 
used  that  results  are  much  more  satisfactory,  in  fact,  it 
seems  to  me  to  be  almost  impossible  to  do  satisfactory  work 
with  a hand  power  sprayer. 

I would  suggest  that  the  horticultural  laws  should  be 
amended  so'  that  when  it  becomes  necessary  for  an  in- 
spector to  eradicate  pests  or  diseases  in  an  orchard  that 
the  costs  be  assessed  against  the  property  and  not  have 
conditions  remain  as  they  are  now,  that  is,  to  sue  and  get 


202  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

judgment  and  then  try  and  collect.  I am  prompted  to 
make  this  suggestion  from  the  fact  that  during  the  past 
year  I have  had  to  have  several  orchards  sprayed  and  one 
in  particular  that  cost  the  state  about  $90.00,  and  in  try- 
ing to  collect  the  same  the  county  attorney  is  unable  to 
get  service  and  judgment,  it  being  an  estate,  and  he  is 
not  able  to  find  all  the  heirs.  Now  if  the  law  were  such 
that  this  could  be  assessed  to  the  property  there  would  be 
no  trouble  to  collect,  as  it  would  be  collected  the  same  as 
taxes.  Another  case  I had  Avas  a non-resident.  I could 
not  find  the  party,  who  had  left  the  country,  mortgaged  the 
property  and,  it  is  presumed,  never  intends  to  redeem  it, 
in  fact,  the  mortgage  is  now  being  foreclosed,  and  the  cost 
of  destroying  this  orchard,  which  I did,  has  to  be  paid  by 
the  state.  I have  often  found  it  very  difficult  to  find  the 
owners  of  orchards,  particularly  on  town  lots  where  the 
owners  are  not  in  the  county  and  no  one  on  or  in  charge 
of  the  property.  Some  one  may  have  the  lots  for  sale, 
but  are  not  agents  on  whom  one  could  serve  legal  notice. 
There  should,  in  my  judgment,  be  some  way  that  legal 
notice  could  be  made  in  these  cases  that  would  be  legal, 
and  allow  the  inspector  to  care  for  the  trees  and  tax  same 
against  the  property. 

I find  that  there  are  not  sufficient  funds  for  the  proper 
enforcing  of  the  horticultural  laws,  and  I have  been  much 
handicapped  in  my  work  for  this  reason.  To  do  the  work 
as  it  should  be  done  it  requires  all  of  a man’s  time,  in  fact, 
my  district  should  not  have  less  than  three  men  most  of 
the  season,  and  all  of  their  time.  If  the  horticultural  laws 
are  good  they  should  be  enforced  and  the  enforcement  of 
them  is  what  should  be  done,  for  if  this  is  to  be  a horticul- 
tural country  we  must  keep  down  all  pests  and  diseases, 
and  the  only  way  to  do  that  is  to  keep  up  the  fight.  The 
people,  I am  sure,  want  the  laws  enforced,  and  the  horti- 
cultural interests  protected  and  fostered.  In  the  past  two 
years  I have  had  the  support  of  the  orchardists  in  my 
district  and  know  that  the  majority,  if  not  all,  want  the 
laws  enforced  and  they  also  know  that  the  Department 
has  not  had  sufficient  funds  the  past  two  years,  for  they 
petitioned  the  county  commissioners  to  help  the  Depart- 


Re'ports  of  District  Inspectors 


203 


ment,  but  the  commissioners  did  not  think  they  could  do 
so,  consequently  they  did  not  appropriate  any  funds  for  this 
purpose. 

In  the  next  few  years  there  will  be  planted  in  this  dis- 
trict a vast  amount  of  acreage  in  orchards,  and  will  be 
the  principal  industry,  and  it  must  be  taken  care  of. 

I think  there  should  be  a law  regulating  the  marketing 
of  fruits,  so  that  all  of  the  fruit  shipped  shall  be  of  a 
standard  quality  and  pack.  I find  that  some  growers  and 
shippers  try  to  keep  up  a high  standard,  while  others 
pack  and  ship  most  anything,  which  lowers  the  standard 
of  our  fruits  in  the  markets,  thereby  working  a hardship 
on  those  who  try  to  raise  the  quality.  One  car  of  poor 
fruit  shipped  to  the  market  does  a vast  amount  of  damage 
to  the  industry  in  this  state. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

(Signed)  Edgar  Meek, 

Deputy  Inspector,  Dist.  No.  7. 

District  No.  8. 

Boise,  Idaho. 

Hon.  John  U.  McPherson, 

State  Horticidtural  Inspector, 

Boise,  Idaho. 

Dear  Sir — I have  the  honor  to  report  to  you  that  con- 
ditions in  District  No.  8,  during  the  past  two  years,  have 
undergone  a decided  change.  The  first  of  the  season  of  1911 
found  Ada  and  Elmore  counties  with  about  15,000  acres  of 
orchards.  San  Jose  scale  infested  nearly  every  orchard  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  commercial  fruit  was  limited  to 
about  70%  marketable  prunes,  pear  and  apples.  The  cod- 
ling moth,  woolly  aphis  and  pear  blight  were  in  nearly 
every  section.  The  wormy  apple  reduced  the  shipment  of 
apples  to  about  60%.  Young  nursery  stock  shipped  in  from 
other  states  contained  much  infection  of  root  gall,  oyster 
shell  scale,  and  peach  borer.  In  one  shipment  I found 
egg  clusters  of  the  gypsy  moth.  All  infected  stock  was 
promptly  burned. 

At  the  close  of  the  season  1912  we  have  in  Ada  and 


204 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


Elmore  counties  about  20,000  acres  of  orchard  and  a good 
crop  of  practically  clean  fruit — about  425  cars  of  prunes 
free  from  insects  and  diseases. 

The  apple  crop  in  this  district  is  not  unusually  large, 
but  it  is  of  good  quality,  numbering  about  225  cars. 

The  grovv^ers  as  a whole  stand  behind  the  inspector 
and  it  is  with  their  co-operation  that  good  results  have 
been  obtained.  We  have  had  some  arrests  and  convictions, 
mostly  for  neglect  to  eradicate  San  Jose  scale  and  to 
spray  for  codling  moth.  Every  orchard  was  sprayed  for 
San  Jose  scale  and  the  apple  and  pear  orchards  were 
sprayed  for  codling  moth  from  one  to  four  times. 

Our  record  of  horticultural  exhibits  is  good,  Ada  county 
having  v/on  county  sweepstakes  prize  at  the  Intermountain 
Fair  in  1912.  At  the  Pacific  Northwest  Land  Products 
show  at  Portland,  Oregon,  Ada  county  won  from  Hood 
River  the  first  prize  on  box  of  Yellow  Newtons,  and  from 
Wenatchee  the  first  and  second  prize  on  Winesaps.  The 
prize  money  won  by  the  growers  and  myself  at  the  Idaho 
Intermountain  fair  was  placed  to  the  credit  of  the  Hor- 
ticultural Inspection  fund  to  be  used  for  horticultural 
work  in  Ada  county. 

During  the  year  1911  I worked  as  assistant  deputy 
and  handled  the  interstate  nursery  stock  inspection  and 
the  inspection  of  the  trees  in  the  city  of  Boise  only. 
During  the  year  1912  I was  appointed  deputy  and  have 
traveled  7,000  miles  and  have  worked  207  days  inspecting 
15,000  acres  of  orchards. 

One  of  the  greatest  needs  in  this  district  is  a selling 
agency  which  would  be  associated  with  similar  agencies 
or  associations  over  the  entire  northwest,  and  through 
these  agencies  the  products  of  the  orchards  should  be 
handled. 

In  order  to  keep  the  inspection  work  going  and  to 
aid  the  growers  in  their  work  of  producing  good,  clean 
fruit,  a larger  appropriation  of  money  is  now  a necessity. 

(Signed)  H.  P.  ASHBY, 

Deputy  Hort.  Inspector. 

Dist.  No.  S. 


Reports  of  District  Inspectors  205 

District  No.  9. 

Twin  Falls,  Idahe. 

Mr.  J.  U.  McPherson, 

State  Horticultural  Inspector, 

Boise,  Idaho. 

Dear  Sir — Complying  with  your  request,  I send  a brief 
report  of  my  work  as  horticultural  inspector  for  District 
No.  9,  for  the  years  1911  and  1912  to  date. 

District  No.  9 includes  Blaine,  Lincoln  and  Twin  Falls 
counties.  During  the  last  two  years  thousands  of  acres 
of  commercial  orchards  have  been  planted  in  Lincoln  and 
Twin  P'alls  counties,  due  to  the  fine  showing  made  by  the 
old  orchards  as  well  as  the  young  orchards  planted  at  the 
opening  of  the  large  irrigated  tract  in  this  district,  and  I 
would  estimate  we  have  over  20,000  acres  planted  to 
orchards.  The  largest  are  1240,  1,000  and  400,  with  80 
and  40  by  the  score. 

There  are  19  bonded  nurserymen  in  the  district,  16 
of  whom  are  raising  nursery  stock,  and  several  more  who 
will  take  out  bonds  soon. 

As  the  appropriation  for  this  district  is  insufficient  for 
the  work,  I have  taken  care  of  the  most  important  part 
of  the  work,  as  far  as  the  funds  would  allow,  and  with  the 
change  in  the  horticultural  law  made  by  the  last  legis- 
lature, pertaining  to  the  inspection  of  ail  nursery  stock 
within  the  state  before  shipment  at  the  nursery,  and  the 
holding  of  all  interstate  shipments  by  the  railroads  for 
inspection  before  delivery,  additional  work  was  given  to 
the  inspectors,  and  this  has  all  been  taken  care  of.  While 
this  part  of  the  work  has  taken  about  two  months  time 
from  the  regular  orchard  inspection,  it  has  been  the 
means  of  saving  the  growers  of  the  district  thousands  of 
dollars  by  protecting  them  from  unreliable  nurserymen, 
and  at  the  same  time  give  the  nurseryman  who  is  growing 
and  selling  clean  trees  a chance  to  do  business. 

The  number  of  days  employed  for  the  year  1911  was 
234V2;  and  for  the  year  1912  178  days,  or  an  average  of 
I8V2  days  per  month. 

The  acreage  inspected  during  the  two  years  is  about  as 
follows 


206 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


Apples  14,413  acres 

Pears  207  ” 

Prunes  40  '' 

Peaches  271  ’’ 

Mixed  548  ” 


Total  15,479  acres 

Town  lots  408 

Number  of  miles  traveled  by  team  and  railroad: 

1911  6,476  miles 

1912  4,715  ” 

Total  11,191  miles 

There  are  hundreds  of  small  orchards  all  over  the 

district  that  have  not  been  inspected,  as  well  as  a great 
many  commercial  orchards  planted  during  the  last  two 
years. 

The  general  condition  of  the  orchards  is  good.  In 
Hagerman  there  are  about  five  orchards  that  have  some 
San  Jose  scale.  For  the  past  three  years  the  orchards  have 
been  well  sprayed  and  those  not  sprayed  were  cut  down 
and  burned. 

The  principal  pests  with  which  we  have  to  contend  are 
codling  moth,  woolly  aphis,  green  aphis,  pear  blight.  Red 
Spider  and  San  Jose  scale.  The  scale  has  been  found  only 
in  Hagerman  valley,  and  the  growers  have  it  well  under 
control. 

In  spraying  for  codling  moth  the  growers  in  general 
have  been  very  successful,  several  power  sprayers  have 
been  bought  and  the  old  hand  pumps  thrown  on  the  junk 
pile,  where,  I trust,  they  will  rest  in  peace. 

The  pear  blight  showed  up  here  this  summer  but  did 
very  little  damage  outside  of  a few  non-commercial  vari- 
eties that  are  subject  to  blight.  I had  to  revisit  practically 
all  of  the  orchards  on  the  tract,  as  a great  many  of  the 
growers  were  not  familiar  with  blight. 

In  closing,  will  say  that  in  carrying  on  the  work  in  the 


Reports  of  District  Inspectors  207 

last  two  years  I have  had  the  assistance  and  support  of 
nearly  all  the  fruit  growers  and  the  community  generally. 
As  the  state  appropriation  for  this  district  is  insufficient 
for  the  work,  on  petition  of  the  tax  payers  and  fruit 
growers  to  the  county  commissioners  of  Twin  Falls  and 
Lincoln  counties,  appropriations  by  both  these  counties 
were  made  sufficient  to  permit  me  to  carry  on  my  work 
which  was  necessary  as  a great  many  are  growing  their 
first  orchards  and  the  assistance  I have  been  able  to 
give  them  in  pruning  and  general  care  has  been  greatly 
appreciated. 

Yours  respectfully, 

(Signed)  C.  W.  Brannan, 

Deputy  Inspector,  Dist.  No.  9. 

District  No.  10. 

Oakley,  Idaho. 

Mr.  J.  U.  McPherson, 

State  Horticultural  Inspector, 

Boise,  Idaho. 

Dear  Sir — You  will  find  herein  a detailed  report  of 
official  acts  as  deputy  horticultural  inspector  for  District 
No.  10,  for  the  year  1912.  The  number  of  days  actually 
employed  was  36,  and  miles  traveled,  506.  The  number 
of  orchards  visited  was  344,  containing  524  acres. 

In  this  district  we  have  pear  blight,  codling  moth, 
woolly  and  green  aphis.  One  orchard  is  infested  with 
San  Jose  scale,  but  it  is  isolated  and  the  pest  is  well 
under  control.  Blight  is  bad  in  the  canyons  along  the 
streams  where  willows  and  other  brush  grows.  Oakley, 
Marion  and  Island  are  free  from  blight.  There  was  an 
extra  good  crop  of  fruit  in  these  three  places,  and  it  was 
the  cleanest  that  it  has  been  for  years.  All  trees  were 
sprayed  properly  last  spring,  and  this,  with  the  cool 
nights,  gave  us  particularly  clean  fruit.  The  plan  of 
serving  notices  in  writing  and  following  them  up  to  see 
that  the  work  is  properly  done  is  a good  thing. 

Rupert,  Burley,  Heyburn  and  that  section  of  the 
country  has  been  a good  market  for  all  fruits  raised  in 


208  StoM  Board  of  Horticidtural  Inspection 

this  district.  No  fruit  was  shipped  out  of  the  state. 
We  have  really  no  commercial  orchards  which  are  bearing. 
The  majority  of  the  trees  are  apples,  but  all  kinds  do 
well  here. 

Our  county  fair  was  a success.  This  is  a great  help 
to  fruit  growing  as  there  are  many  questions  asked  and 
much  good  is  done. 

More  money  must  be  allowed  for  this  work  by  the 
state.  One  hundred  dollars  for  this  district  is  insuffi- 
cient. Had  it  not  been  that  the  people  of  this  district 
petitioned  the  county  board  for  one  hundred  dollars,  and 
the  board  seeing  the  necessity  of  allowing  the  same,  this 
district  would  have  fared  on  small  rations. 

Many  trees  are  ordered  for  next  spring’s  planting. 
Some  are  putting  out  as  much  as  forty  acres.  All  stock 
shipped  in  the  last  year  was  good. 

Peddlers  handled  most  of  the  fruit  of  this  district, 
and  I know  of  none  that  was  handred  but  what  was 
clean.  The  same  was  true  of  the  stores. 

(Signed)  John  Adams, 

Deputy  Inspector,  Dist.  No.  10. 

District  No.  11. 

Malad,  Idaho. 

Mr.  John  U.  McPherson, 

State  Horticultural  Inspector, 

Boise,  Idaho. 

Dear  Sir — I beg  to  report  on  the  work  I have  done  as 
deputy  horticultural  inspector  for  District  No.  11  for  the 
year  1912. 

My  district  is  in  much  better  shape  than  it  has  ever 
been  before.  The  people  who  own  orchards  are  seeing 
the  benefits  of  inspection  and  are  doing  everything  possible 
to  help  the  good  work  along.  They  have  done  much 
more  cleaning  up  and  trimming  of  their  orchards  than 
they  have  before,  and  they  are  beginning  to  see  the 
benefits  to  be  derived  from  taking  care  of  their  trees. 

In  the  course  of  my  inspections  I have  traveled  in 
the  neighborhood  of  about  1,500  miles,  though  there  are 


of  Hdrfitnil  I lire,  Idaho. 


PI.  AT  JO  XXXI. 


ROME  BEAUTY 


Reports  of  District  Inspectors 


209 


only  1,800  acres  in  this  district,  it  being  scattered  from 
one  end  to  the  other,  but  from  the  returns  that  are 
coming  from  the  orchards  it  is  sure  to  increase  the 
number  of  acres  greatly  in  the  next  few  years.  This 
district  is  too  large  for  one  man  to  cover  it  as  it  should 
be,  and  if  an  appropriation  large  enough  could  be 
obtained  for  this  district  I would  recommend  that  the 
district  be  cut  in  two  and  the  results  of  the  work  would 
be  a great  deal  better.  The  time  is  so  short  to  do  the 
work  that  it  is  an  impossibility  for  one  man  to  look  after 
it  as  it  should  be. 

Very  respectfully, 

(Signed)  T.  J.  Evans, 

Deputy  Inspector,  Dist.  No.  11. 

District  No  12. 

Paris,  Idaho. 

Mr.  J.  U.  McPherson, 

State  Horticultural  Inspector, 

Boise,  Idaho. 

Dear  Sir — In  compliance  with  your  letter  asking  for 
a general  statement  as  to  the  condition  of  my  district 
regarding  its  increase  in  orchard,  and  the  general  care 
of  the  same,  the  number  of  miles  I have  traveled,  etc., 
etc.,  I have  this  to  say: 

The  condition  of  my  district  is  good,  there  has  been 
great  improvement;  the  increase  in  orchard  is  over  as 
much  again,  about  2,000  acres,  and  the  people  are  taking 
better  care  of  their  orchards  than  ever  before.  The  fruit 
shipped  in  is  better  than  usual.  By  the  present  outlook 
I think  the  number  of  acres  which  will  be  planted  next 
spring  will  be  large.  The  people  have  done  good  spray- 
ing, and  they  see  the  benefit  that  it  has  done.  They  all 
say  the  law  is  a good  one  and  they  can  see  the  good  it  is 
doing.  The  number  of  miles  I have  traveled  is  966. 

Very  respectfully, 

(Signed)  John  Norton, 

Deputy  Inspector,  Dist.  No.  12. 


210  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 

District  No  13. 

Blackfoot,  Idaho, 

Mr.  John  U.  McPherson, 

State  Horticultural  Inspector,  Boise,  Idaho, 

Dear  Sir — I have  the  honor  to  submit  to  you  the 
following  general  report  of  the  horticultural  inspection 
work  in  District  No.  13. 

As  shown  by  the  monthly  reports  presented  during  the 
season  from  May  1st  to  the  present  date,  I have  inspected 
4,101  acres  of  orchard,  and  have  traveled  4,341  Vi  miles 
in  the  pursuit  of  my  official  duties. 

There  are  about  8,000  acres  of  orchard  in  the  district, 
and  in  addition  to  this  there  have  been  5,000  young 
trees  shipped  into  the  district  within  the  last  thirty 
days  for  fall  and  spring  planting,  besides  the  trees  which 
are  sold  by  the  local  nurseries. 

The  local  nurseries  and  the  commercial  orchards  in 
the  district  are  in  very  good  condition  and  indications 
point  to  a large  increase  in  orchard  acreage  next  year. 

There  has  been  more  fruit  marketed  from  this  dis- 
trict during  the  present  year  than  in  five  years  previous. 
This  is  not  because  so  much  more  fruit  has  been  grown, 
but  because  facilities  for  marketing  the  fruit  have  im- 
proved. Two  fruit  packing  and  shipping  associations 
have  been  established  in  Blackfoot,  and  although  they 
have  been  in  business  for  only  a few  months,  they  have 
both  handled  a large  amount  of  fruit.  There  have  also 
been  more  fruit  buyers  in  the  field  than  ever  before  which 
indicates  a growing  demand  for  the  quality  of  the  fruit 
produced  in  this  district. 

Since  the  state  appropriation  for  horticultural  inspec- 
tion work  was  limited  in  amount,  two  counties,  Bonneville 
and  Fremont,  made  appropriations  from  their  funds  of 
$150  and  $250  respectively,  to  further  the  work  in  those 
counties. 

One  arrest  was  made  in  this  district  for  selling  infected 
fruit,  in  violation  of  the  state  horticultural  law.  The 
defendant  in  the  case  pleaded  guilty  and  was  fined. 

(Signed)  H.  T.  Brangman, 

Deputy  Inspector,  Dist,  No,  13, 


Reports  of  District  Inspectors  211 

District  No  14. 

Salmon,  Idaho. 

Mr.  John  U.  McPherson, 

State  Horticultural  Inspector, 

Boise,  Idaho. 

Dear  Sir — Complying  with  your  request,  I send  my 
report  as  horticultural  inspector  of  District  No.  14. 

This  district  comprises  Custer  and  Lemhi  counties. 
The  sections  where  orchards  grow  are  in  the  Salmon 
river  valley,  and  the  Lemhi  river  valley.  The  former  is 
over  150  miles  long,  and  the  latter  is  50  miles,  and  the 
altitude  of  these  valleys  varies  from  3,500  feet  to  7,000 
feet.  The  bearing  orchards  are  nearly  all  in  the  Salmon 
river  valley. 

No  fruit  has  ever  been  shipped  from  this  district  as 
there  has  never  been  enough  to  supply  the  home  demand. 

Since  the  advent  of  the  railroad  in  April,  1910,  a num- 
ber of  commercial  orchards  have  been  planted  and  many 
more  will  be  planted  next  spring. 

The  fruits  of  this  district  are  principally  apples,  pears, 
cherries  and  the  smaller  fruits.  Strawberries  and  rasp- 
berries especially  grow  to  perfection. 

The  Wealthy,  Jonathan,  Alexander  and  McIntosh 
reach  perfection  in  quantity,  quality,  color  and  size  in 
apples.  Many  other  kinds  are  planted  which  seem  to  do 
well,  such  as  Rome  Beauty,  Northwest  Greening,  King 
David,  etc.  The  Delicious,  McIntosh,  Rome  Beauty, 
Winter  Banana  and  Jonathan  are  the  principal  varieties 
being  planted  for  commercial  purposes. 

Pears  of  all  kinds  do  exceedingly  well  in  all  parts  of 
this  district.  No  prettier  sight  can  be  seen  than  the 
cherry  trees  when  the  fruit  is  ripe.  They  bear  such 
burdens  of  rich,  juicy  cherries.  The  Dukes  and  Morrellos, 
at  present,  are  the  leading  kinds  as  they  are  perfect  in 
every  way. 

All  the  young  orchards  have  made  strong,  vigorous 
growth  during  the  past  two  years.  Very  few  pests  are 
found.  A few  borers  and  aphis  are  found,  which  are 
common.  Only  one  orchard  has  had  blight  and  one 


212 


State  Board  of  Hojdicultiiral  Inspection 


small  section  was  infested  by  codling  moth.  Such  trees 
were  sprayed  with  arsenate  of  lead.  Spraying  was  fol- 
lowed up  so  closely  that  the  pest  is  practically  exter- 
minated. Thus  far  Custer  and  Lemhi  counties  are  prac- 
.tically  free  from  pests. 

In  1911  the  crops  were  immune  in  all  kinds  of  fruit. 
In  1912  the  crops  did  not  quite  equal  those  of  1911.  A 
failure  of  the  fruit  crops  has  never  been  known  in  this 
district. 

During  1911  and  1912  I have  traveled  1,217  miles, 
and  inspected  and  reinspected  952  acres,  and  inspected 
and  reinspected  53  town  lots. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

(Signed)  H.  C.  Chaffee, 

Deputy  Inspector,  Dist.  No,  H. 


APPENDIX 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  COLORED  PLATES. 


( Descriptions  of  Apples  taken  fi'om  ''The  Apples 
of  New  Yorkr) 


McIntosh  red 

This  variety  belongs  to  the  Fameuse  group.  It  is  adapted  to 
a wider  range  of  localities  than  the  Fameuse.  The  fruit  is  very 
attractive  in  appearance,  of  bright  deep  red  color  and  good  size. 
The  flesh  is  very  tender,  perfumed  and  delicious.  It  is  desirable 
for  local  markets  and  special  trade  but  because  of  its  lack  of  firm- 
ness it  is  less  suitable  for  general  handling.  As  grown  at  this 
station  it  begins  to  ripen  in  late  September  or  early  October.  In 
western  New  York  it  cannot  be  expected  to  keep  much  later  than 
October  in  ordinary  storage  without  considerable  loss  but  in  cold 
storage  it  may  be  held  until  December  or  January  (31).  When 
grown  in  more  northern  or  elevated  regions  it  is  often  held  in  good 
condition  till  midwinter  or  later.  It  is  susceptible  to  scab  but  this 
may  readily  be  controlled  with  proper  treatment.  The  crop  ripens 
unevenly  and  a considerable  nortion  of  the  fruit  is  liable  to  drop 
before  it  is  ready  to  pick.  On  this  account  it  is  best  to  make  two 
or  three  pickings.  In  some  localities  the  tree  is  said  to  be  a 
somewhat  slow  grower  and  not  satisfactorilv  productive,  but  more 
often  it  is  found  to  be  a rather  strong  grower,  hardy  and  healthy. 
It  comes  into  bearing  rather  young  and  is  a reliable  cropper,  yield- 
ing good  crops  biennially  and  sometimes  annually.  It  has  not 
been  sufficiently  tested  to  demonstrate  fully  its  value  for  commer- 
cial purposes  but  it  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  promising 
varieties  of  its  class  for  general  cultivation  in  New  York. 

Historical. — Originated  as  a chance  seedling  on  the  McIntosh 
homestead,  Matilda  township,  Dundas  county,  Ontario,  where  Allan 
McIntosh  began  the  propagation  of  this  variety  in  the  nursery 
about  1870  (20)  It  has  been  widely  disseminated.  It  is  now  com- 
monly propagated  by  nurserymen,  and  its  cultivation  is  on  the  in- 
crease in  New  York. 

Tree. — Vigorous,  with  numerous  small,  slender  laterals.  Form 
roundish  or  snreading.  Twigs  above  medium  to  short,  straight  or 
nearly  so,  rather  slender;  internodes  long  to  below  medium.  Bark 
bright  reddish-brown,  lightly  streaked  with  scarf-skin;  slightly 
pubescent.  Lenticels  quite  numerous,  small,  oval  or  elongated, 
raised.  Buds  deeply  set  in  bark,  medium  to  below,  plump,  obtuse 
to  acute,  free,  slightly  pubescent. 

Fruit — Above  medium,  sometimes  large,  pretty  uniform  in  shape 
and  size.  Form  roundish  to  somewhat  oblate,  regular  or  faintly 
ribbed,  obscurely  angular.  Stem  short,  stout  or  moderately  slender. 


216 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


usually  not  exserted,  often  with  irregular  protuberances.  Cavity 
large,  acuminate  or  somewhat  acute,  wide,  medium  in  depth,  somc- 
-what  broadly  furrowed,  often  partly  russeted.  Calyx  small,  closed 
or  partly  open;  lobes  short  to  long,  narrow,  acute.  Basin  pubes- 
cent, rather  small,  medium  in  depth,  narrow,  abrupt,  smooth  or 
obscurely  furrowed. 

Skin  thin,  moderately  tender,  smooth,  readily  separating  from 
the  flesh,  clear  whitish-yellow  or  greenish  washed  and  deeply  blushed 
with  bright  red  and  striped  with  carmine;  highly  colored  specimens 
become  dark,  almost  purplish  red  with  the  carmine  stripes  obscure 
or  obliterated,  overspread  with  thin  lilac  bloom.  Often  the  effect 
of  the  deep  red  is  heightened  by  lively  contrast  with  one  or  more 
spots  of  the  clear  pale  yellow  ground  color  where  some  twig  or 
leaf  pressed  closely  against  the  growing  fruit.  Dots  whitish  or 
yellow,  usually  very  small. 

Calyx  tube  short,  conical  or  funnel-shape  with  broad  limb. 
Stamens  median  to  basal. 

Core  medium  size,  usually  abaxile ; cells  usually  wide  open ; 
core  lines  nearly  meeting.  Carpels  roundish  to  elliptical,  narrowing 
toward  base  and  apex,  smooth,  much  concave.  Seeds  medium  brown, 
rather  large,  acute. 

Flesh  white  or  slightly  tinged  with  yellow,  sometimes  veined 
with  red,  firm,  fine,  crisp,  tender,  very  juicy,  characteristically  and 
agreeably  aromatic,  perfumed,  sprightly,  subacid,  becoming  mild  and 
nearly  sweet  when  very  ripe,  very  good  to  best  for  dessert. 

Season  October  to  December  or  later. 


BARTLETT  PEAR 


Origin,  England.  Large,  obtuse  pyriform;  surface  uneven; 
skin  thin,  bright  clear  yellow,  with  blush  on  the  sunny  side  of 
exposed  specimens,  sometimes  a little  russet.  Flesh  white,  buttery, 
.juicy,  highly  perfumed,  vinous  flavor.  Ripens  in  midsummer.  It 
is  one  of  the  few  choice  varieties  that  succeed  over  a wide  range 
of  country  and  is  more  largely  grown  for  commercial  purposes  than 
any  other  variety.  Excellent  for  canning,  preserving  and  evap- 
orating. 


WHITE  PEARMAIN 

This  is  an  old  favorite  dessert  apple  in  portions  of  the  middle 
west  from  Ohio  to  Kansas.  It  appears  to  succeed  better  in  those 
regions  than  it  does  in  New  York.  It  is  not  recommended  for 
planting  in  that  state. 

Historical. — Warder  says:  “This  favorite  fruit  was  brought 
to  Indiana  by  some  of  the  early  pomologists,  in  the  days  of  saddle- 
bag transportation.  In  a lot  of  grafts,  two  varieties,  having  lost 
their  labels,  were  propagated  and  fruited  without  name.  Being 
considered  Pearmain  shaped,  they  were  called  respectively  Red  and 
White  Winter  Pearmains.  The  former  proved  to  be  the  Esopus 
Spitzenberg;  the  latter  has  never  yet  been  identified,  though  be- 
lieved to  be  an  old  eastern  variety.”  For  a time  it  was  confused 


Descriptions  of  Colored  Plates 


217 


with  an  old  New  Jersey  apple  by  the  name  of  Michael  Henry  Pip- 
pin, and  Elliott  fell  into  the  error  of  publishing  White  Pearmain 
and  White  Winter  Pearmain  as  synonyms  of  Micnael  Henry  Pippin 
but  it  was  finally  conceded  that  White  Pearmain  and  Michael  Hen- 
ry Pippin  are  distinct  varieties  (4,  7).  In  1858  it  was  cataloged 
by  the  American  Pomological  Society  as  White  Winter  Pearmain 
(5).  Since  1897  (13)  it  has  been  listed  as  White  Pearmain  but  it 
is  very  doubtful  whether  this  change  will  be  generally  accepted  by 
fruit  growers  and  fruit  dealers.  This  variety  has  been  little 
grown  in  New  York  and  is  now  seldom  or  never  planted  there. 

Tree. — Vigorous,  form  spreading.  Twigs  short,  stout,  blunt 
at  tips,  generally  straight;  internodes  vary  from  short  to  long.  Bark 
reddish-brown  overlaid  with  heavy  scarf-skin,  white  pubescent. 
Lenticels  conspicuous,  numerous,  above  medium,  elongated,  raised. 
Buds  large,  projecting,  acute,  quite  pubescent,  free. 

Fruit. — Below  medium  to  nearly  large,  uniform  in  size  and 
shape.  Form  roundish  ovate  or  roundish  approaching  oblong  conic, 
varying  to  roundish  conic,  somewhat  ribbed,  pretty  symmetrical 
‘^tem  medium  to  long.  Cavity  rather  small  to  above  medium,  acute, 
deep,  moderately  narrow  to  broad,  somewhat  furrowed,  sometimes 
russeted.  Calyx  medium  to  large,  usually  closed;  lobes  long,  acute. 
Basin  small  to  medium,  oblique,  shallow  and  obtuse  to  medium  in 
depth  and  rather  abrupt,  medium  in  width,  often  distinctly  fur- 
rowed, wrinkled,  pubescent. 

Skin  tough,  smooth,  slightly  waxen,  pale  yellow,  or  at  first 
greenish,  with  a shade  of  brownish-red.  Dots  numerous,  pale  or 
russet,  often  submerged,  usually  larger  and  much  elongated  about 
the  cavity. 

Calyx  tube  long,  conical. 

Core  medium  to  rather  large;  cells  closed  or  partly  open;  core 
lines  somewhat  clasping.  Carpels  rather  flat,  broad  or  roundish- 
cordate,  emarginate,  mucronate,  tufted.  Seeds  light  brown,  medium 
to  large,  rather  wide,  plump,  obtuse  to  acute,  tufted. 

Flesh  slightly  tinged  with  yellow,  firm,  fine-grained,  crisp,  ten- 
der, juicy,  mild  subacid,  sprightly,  very  pleasantly  aromatic,  very 
good  to  best. 

Season  December  to  March. 


WINESAP 


Winesap  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  popular  apples  in  Amer- 
ica. It  is  known  in  all  the  apple  growing  sections  from  Virginia 
westward  to  the  Pacific  coast.  An  indication  of  its  popularity 
may  be  gained  from  the  fact  that  according  to  Bailey’s  Inventory 
(27)  there  were,  in  1892,  seventy-three  nursery  firms  offering  Wine- 
sap for  sale  as  compared  with  sixty-four  firms  offering  Baldwin, 
fifty-eight  offering  Northern  Spy  and  forty-eight  offering  Rhode 
Island  Greening.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the 
number  of  firms  selling  a variety  is  not  an  altogether  true  criterion 
of  the  number  of  trees  sold. 

Like  various  other  old  varieties,  Winesap  has  many  seedlings 
which  partake  more  or  less  of  the  characters  of  the  parent.  The 
best  known  of  these  are  Arkansas,  Arkansas  Black,  Paragon  and 
Stayman  Winesap. 

The  tree  is  a rather  vigorous  though  not  particularly  rank 
grower,  comes  into  bearing  early  and  is  a remarkably  regular 


218  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


cropper.  It  does  best  on  rather  light,  rich,  deep  soils  and  does  not 
succeed  on  heavy  clays  or  in  low,  damp  locations.  In  unfavorable 
situations  the  trees  are  apt  to  be  short-lived  and  in  New  York  are 
less  hardy  than  the  leading  commercial  varieties  of  that  region. 
Although  Winesap  is  a well-known  market  apple,  yet  with  the 
exception  of  the  Piedmont  region  in  Virginia  and  certain  districts 
elsewhere  it  has  not  proved  generally  successful  for  the  commercial 
orchard.  In  New  York  it  seldom  reaches  good  medium  size.  In 
more  southern  latitudes  and  under  favorable  conditions  the  fruit 
is  well  colored  and  of  good  quality,  but  excepting  on  young  trees 
or  on  soils  of  more  than  average  fertility  it  averages  too  small  for 
a good  market  variety.  When  well  grown  it  is  of  very  good  quality 
and  attractive  in  appearance,  being  quite  uniform  in  shape  and  size 
and  of  good  dark  red  color.  As  grown  at  this  station  it  is  in  season 
from  January  to  June  with  April  as  the  ordinary  commercial  limft 
(47).  When  grown  farther  south  its  season  extends  to  February 
in  ordinary  storage  and  to  April  in  cold  storage.  It  is  a good  ship- 
per and  stands  heat  well  before  going  into  storage,  but  late  in  the 
season  it  often  scalds,  particularly  when  not  well  colored. 

Historical. — Nothing  definite  is  known  of  the  origin  of  Wine- 
sap.  Coxe  speaks  of  it  as  being  “the  most  favored  cider  fruit  in 
the  West  Jersey.’’  From  this  fact  many  writers  have  referred  to 
West  Jersey  as  the  region  of  its  origin  or  probable  origin  but  such 
statements  seem  hardly  warranted  by  the  evidence. 

Tree. — Medium  in  size,  vigorous.  Form  roundish-spreading, 
rather  straggling  and  open.  Twigs  rather  stout,  rather  short  to 
above  medium;  internodes  short.  Bark  very  dark  reddish-brown  with 
thin  gray  scarf-skin,  somewhat  pubescent.  Lenticels  especially 
clustered  just  below  the  nodes,  conspicuous,  round  or  elongated, 
variable  in  size  but  usually  above  medium.  Buds  large  to  medium, 
broad,  usually  rather  obtuse  but  sometimes  acute,  free  or  nearly  so. 
Foliage  thin;  leaves  usually  not  large,  narrow. 

Fruit. — As  grown  in  New  York  averages  even  smaller  than 
that  which  is  grown  farther  south.  It  is  pretty  uniform  in  size 
and  shape.  Form  usually  conical,  sometimes  roundish,  nearly  trun- 
cate at  base,  nearly  regular  or  obscurely  ribbed,  symmetrical.  Stem 
medium  to  short,  rather  slender.  Cavity  medium  to  rather  small, 
acute  to  acuminate,  narrow  to  rather  broad,  deep,  symmetrical  or 
somewhat  furrowed,  often  more  or  less  lipped,  often  russeted  or 
with  outspreading  russet  rays.  Calyx  medium  to  large,  closed; 
lobes  long,  narrow,  acuminate.  Basin  rather  small  to  medium,  often 
oblique,  shallow  to  rather  deep  and  abrupt,  narrow  to  moderately 
wide,  distinctly  furrowed,  somewhat  wrinkled. 

Skin  medium  in  thickness,  tough,  smooth,  glossy,  bright  deep 
red  indistinctly  striped  and  blotched  with  very  dark  purplish-red 
over  a distinctly  yellow  ground  color  or  green  if  not  fully  mature, 
overspread  with  faint  bloom.  Dots  rather  small,  scattering,  whitish, 
sometimes  in  conspicuous  contrast  with^  the  deep  red  skin,  especially, 
toward  the  cavity.  Prevailing  effect  bright  deep  red. 

Calyx  tube  quite  variable,  conical  or  funnel-shape.  Stamens 
marginal. 

Core  medium  to  small,  abaxile  with  a hollow  cylinder  in  the 
axis,  narrowing  toward  the  apex;  cells  pretty  uniformly  developed, 
symmetrical,  open  or  nearly  closed;  core  lines  clasping.  Carpels 
broadly  roundish,  much  concave,  but  slightly  emarginate  if  at  all, 
mucronate.  Seeds  below  medium  to  above,  wide,  plump,  obtuse. 

Flesh  tinged  with  yellow,  veins  sometimes  red,  very  firm,  rather 
coarse,  moderately  crisp,  very  juicy,  sprightly  subacid,  good  to 
very  good. 


Descriptions  of  Colored  Plates 
YELLOW  NEWTOWN 


219 


Tree — More  vigorous  and  more  erect  than  that  of  the  Green 
Newtown,  the  branches  growing  more  freely,  the  laterals  showing 
less  tendency  to  droop  and  the  twigs  averaging  somewhat  longer 
than  is  the  case  with  the  Green  Newtown,  otherwise,  we  find  that 
the  two  varieties,  as  Downing  says  (10)  “grow  alike.” 

Fruit — The  technical  description  of  the  fruit  of  the  Green 
Newtown  applies  well  to  the  Yellow  Newtown  in  all  points  except- 
ing the  color  of  the  fruit  and  the  color  and  flavor  of  the  flesh.  At 
fruit  harvest  the  Yellow  Newtown  is  distinguishable  from  the 
Green  Newtown  because  both  the  yellow  and  the  pink  tones  are 
more  highly  developed.  When  they  are  fully  mature  and  more 
highly  colored  apples  are  bright  yellow,  often  with  distinct  pinkish 
blush,  especially  about  the  base.  Less  highly  colored  fruit  is 
greenish-yellow  shaded  more  or  less  with  duller  brownish-pink 
through  which  narrow  streaks  of  the  ground  color  often  appear, 
combining  with  the  streaks  of  whitish  scarf-skin  to  give  a some- 
what striped  effect.  In  general  appearance  it  is  decidedly  more 
attractive  than  the  Green  Newtown,  and  its  flesh  is  apt  to  be  more 
distinctly  tinged  with  yellow,  milder,  less  sprightly  and  more 
highly  aromatic. 


ITALIAN  PRUNE. 

{Prunus  domestica). 

The  Italian  Prune  is  one  of  the  most  widely  grown  of  all  plums. 
Its  home  is  Italy  and  it  is  grown  in  all  of  the  plum  regions  of 
continental  Europe;  is  well  known  in  England;  is  third  or  fourth 
in  popularity  in  the  Atlantic  States  of  America;  is  by  long  odds 
the  leading  plum  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  where  it  is  chiefly  used 
in  prune-making  and  is  grown  somewhat  for  prunes  and  for  ship- 
ping green  in  California.  There  are  several  reasons  why  this  plum 
is  so  popular.  To  begin  with,  it  is  finely  flavored,  whether  eaten 
out  of  hand,  stewed  or  otherwise  prepared  for  the  table  or  cured 
as  a prune.  The  fruit  is  a little  too  tart  to  be  ranked  as  a first- 

class  dessert  plum  and  yet  it  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  prunes  for 

this  purpose,  though  it  must  be  fully  ripe  to  be  fit  for  dessert;  in 

cooking  it  changes  to  a dark  wine  color,  very  attractive  in  appear- 

ance, with  a most  pleasant,  sprightly  flavor;  as  a cured  prune  the 
flesh  is  fine  and  meaty,  yet  elastic,  of  good  color  and  a perfect 
freestone,  making  when  cooked  the  same  attractive  looking,  fine- 
flavored,  sprightly  sauce  to  be  had  from  the  green  fruit^s ; the 
prunes  from  this  “^nriety,  too,  are  noted  for  long-keeping.  In  the 
uncured  state  the  variety  keeps  and  ships  well.  The  trees  are  usu- 
ally large,  hardy,  productive,  well  formed  and  bear  regularly;  yet 
they  are  not  ideal  and  the  variety  fails  chiefly  in  tree-characters. 
The  trees  are  often  capricious  to  soil  and  climate,  do  not  always  bear 
well,  seem  to  be  susceptible  to  diseases,  are  preyed  upon  by  insects  and 
suffer  in  particular  from  dry  or  hot  weather.  Were  all  of  these 
troubles  to  befall  the  variety  at  one  time  it  would  of  necessity  give 
way  to  better  sorts,  but  happily  they  are  to  be  found  for  the  most 
part  in  illy  adapted  conditions  or  in  certain  seasons;  the  Italian 
prune  well  cared  for  in  locations  to  which  it  is  suited  must  long  re- 
main one  of  the  leading  plums  despite  the  faults  of  the  trees. 


220 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  luspection 


The  Italian  Prune  originated  in  Italy  at  least  a century  ago 
and  has  long  been  common  in  northern  Italy,  especially  in  the 
\ncinity  of  Milan.  The  London  Horticultural  Society  catalog  for 
1831  first^  mentions  it  in  England  and  the  following  year  it  was 
described  in  America  by  Prince  as  an  excellent  prune  recently  intro- 
duced from  Europe.  The  American  Pomological  Society  recom- 
mended it  in  1856  as  worthy  of  further  testing,  and  in  1862  it  was 
added  to  the  fruit  catalog  list  of  this  society.  The  origin  of  the 
name  Fellenberg,  a very  common  synonym,  is  explained  by  Lauche, 
who  says:  “It  came  to  Germany  through  Mr.  Fellenberg  and  is 
therefore  spread  under  his  name  and  also  under  the  names  Schwei- 
zerwetsche  and  Fellenberger  Zwetsche.”  He  further  adds  that  the 
variety  “is  still  not  known  in  Germany  as  it  deserves,  considering 
its  quality,  size  and  productiveness.” 

Tree  of  medium  size,  rather  vigorous,  spreading  or  upright, 
low  topped,  hardy,  usually  productive;  branches  ash-gray,  smooth, 
with  small,  raised  lenticels;  branchlets  short,  with  internodes  of 
medium  length,  greenish-red  changing  to  brownish-drab,  pubescent, 
with  small  lenticels;  leaf-buds  of  medium  size  and  length,  conical, 
appressed;  leaf-scars  large. 

Leaves  folded  upright,  obovate  or  oval,  two  inches  wide,  four 
and  one-half  inches  long;  upper  surface  green,  pubescent;  lower 
surface  silvery  green,  heavily  pubescent,  apex  and  base  acute, 
margin  doubly  crenate,  with  small,  dark  glands;  petiole  five-eighths 
inch  long,  above  medium  thickness,  pubescent,  tinged  red,  with  from 
one  to  three  globose,  greenish-brown  glands  usually  on  the  stalk. 

Season  of  bloom  intermediate  and  short;  flowers  appearing  af- 
ter the  leaves,  one  and  three-sixteenths  inches  across,  in  the  buds 
tinged  yellow,  changing  to  white  when  expanded;  borne  on  lateral 
spurs,  rarely  on  lateral  buds,  singly  or  in  pairs;  pedicles  three- 
quarters  inch  long,  thick,  pubescent,  greenish;  calyx  tube  green, 
campanulate,  pubescent  at  the  base;  calyx  lobes  long  and  narrow, 
acute  or  narrowly  obtuse,  pubescent  on  both  surfaces  and  along  the 
glandular-serrate  margin,  reflexed,  inclined  to  curl  at  the  tips; 
petals  oval  or  obovate,  dentate,  tapering  to  broad  claws  of  medium 
length;  anthers  yellowish;  filaments  seven-sixteenths  inch  long; 
pistil  pubescent  at  the  base,  equal  to  the  stamens  in  length. 

Fruit  late,  season  short;  one  and  seven-eighths  inches  by  one 
and  one-half  inches  in  size,  long-oval,  enlarged  on  the  suture  side, 
slightly  compressed,  halves  unequal;  cavity  very  shallow  and  narrow, 
abrupt;  suture  shallow  to  medium;  apex  bluntly  pointed;  color 
purplish-black,  overspread  with  very  thick  bloom;  dots  numerous, 
small,  light  brown,  somewhat  conspicuous;  stem  inserted  at  one  side 
of  the  base,  one  inch  in  length,  pubescent,  adhering  well  to  the 
fruit;  skin  thin,  somewhat  tough,  separating  readily;  flesh  green- 
ish-yelloTV  changing  to  yellow,  juicy,  firm,  subacid,  slightly  aro- 
matic; very  good  to  best;  stone  free,  smaller  than  the  cavity,  one 
inch  by  five-eighths  inch  in  size,  irregular  oval,  flattened,  roughened 
and  pitted,  necked  at  the  base,  abruptly  tipped  at  the  apex;  ventral 
suture  prominent,  heavily  ridged,  sometimes  strongly  winged;  dorsal 
suture  widely  and  deeply  grooved. 


DELICIOUS 

I^arge,  distinctive  in  shape;  color,  brilliant  dark  red  blending 
into  golden  yellow  at  the  blossom  end.  The  calyx  is  one  of  its 


Descriptions  of  Colored  Plates 


221 


ever-characteristic  features,  having  five  protuberances  which  are 
more  or  less  pointed  or  fiat  rounded,  depending  on  section  where 
grown.  Quality  very  good;  flavor  sweet,  slightly  touched  with  acid, 
very  aromatic.  Flesh  is  fine  grained,  very  crisp,  exceedingly  juicy. 
One  of  the  strongest,  hardiest  and  vost  vigorous;  aphis-resistant  and 
a late  bloomer;  blossoms  strongly  frost-resistant.  Originated  at 
Peru,  Madison  county,  Iowa,  by  Jesse  Hiatt. 


COMICE  PEAR 


Origin,  France.  Fruit  large,  varying  from  roundish  to  obtuse 
pyraform.  Greenish  yellow,  clear  yellow  at  maturity,  some  russet 
shaded  with  crimson  on  sunny  side;  stalk  short  and  stout,  inclined 
and  set  in  a shallow  cavity;  calyx  small,  open,  in  a deep  uneven 
basin.  Flesh  white,  fine  grained,  sweet,  rich,  slightly  aromatic 
flavor.  October  and  November. 


WEALTHY 


This  variety  is  particularly  valuable  for  cold  climates  because 
the  tree  is  very  hardy  and  the  fruit  sells  well,  being  bright 
red  and  good  in  quality  for  either  dessert  or  culinary  uses.  It  is  in 
season  from  October  to  early  winter  or  mid-winter.  In  ordinary 
storage  its  commercial  limit  is  October,  but  in  cold  storage  it  mav 
be  kept  till  January  or  later.  It  does  not  stand  heat  very  well 
before  going  into  storage  and  goes  down  rather  quickly  (41).  Young- 
trees  or  trees  which  are  making  a thrifty  growth  produce  fruit  of 
good  size,  but  mature,  slow-growing  trees  are  apt  to  yield  a con- 
siderable percentage  of  undersized  fruit,  especially  when  they  are 
overloaded,  as  is  often  the  case.  The  crop  ripens  unevenly,  and 
more  than  one  picking  should  be  made  in  order  to  secure  the 
fruit  in  prime  condition.  If  it  is  left  upon  the  tree  until  fully 
colored  there  is  apt  to  be  considerable  loss  by  dropping.  The  tree  is 
a good  thrifty  grower  when  young,  but  with  maturity  it  becomes  a 
moderate  or  rather  slow  grower,  forming  a medium  sized  or  rather 
dwarfish  tree.  Wealthy  is  being  planted  for  commercial  purposes 
in  many  parts  of  the  state,  but  in  most  localities  the  trees  are  as 
yet  comparatively  young;  in  some  sections  of  the  state  it  is  being 
planted  more  than  any  other  apple  of  its  season.  Trees  that  have 
become  old  enough  to  develop  the  tendency  to  produce  rather 
small  fruit  are  in  some  places  being  grafted  over  to  other  sorts. 
In  other  places,  fruit  growers,  by  adopting  such  treatment  as  thin- 
ning the  fruit  and  keeping  the  soil  fertile,  continue  to  produce 
apples  of  good  marketable  size  when  the  trees  are  mature. 

Historical. — Originated  by  Peter  M.  Gideon,  Excelsior,  Minn., 
from  seed  of  the  Cherry  Crab,  which  he  obtained  about  1860  from 
Albert  Emerson,  Bangor,  Me.,  (11,  28).  Ragan  (42)  states  that  the 
fruit  was  first  described  in  the  Western  P^armer  in  1869.  It  has 
been  extensively  disseminated,  particularly  in  those  apple-growing 
districts  where  a tree  of  superior  hardiness  is  especially  desired. 
It  is  generally  listed  by  nurserymen  and  its  cultivation  is  gradually 
increasing. 


222 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


Tree. — Somewhat  dwarfish  to  medium  size,  moderately  vigor- 
ous with  short,  moderately  stout,  curved  branches.  Form  upright 
spreading  or  roundish,  open  and  somewhat  drooping.  Twigs  long, 
curved,  slender;  internodes  long.  Bark  dark  brown,  lightly  streaked 
with  scarf-skin;  pubescent.  Lenticels  quite  numerous,  medium  to 
small,  oblong,  not  raised,  rather  conspicuous.  Buds  medium  size, 
broad,  plump,  obtuse,  free,  pubescent. 

Fruit. — Above  medium  to  large  when  well  grown  but  often 
small  on  old  trees;  pretty  uniform  in  shape  and  quality  but  more 
or  less  uneven  in  size.  Form  roundish  conic,  slightly  flattened  at 
base,  regular,  symmetrical.  Stem  usually  short  to  medium,  but 
rather  long  on  small  fruit  and  rather  slender.  Cavity  decidedly 
acuminate,  rather  deep,  moderately  narrow  to  rather  broad,  rus- 
seted.  Calyx  medium  size,  closed  or  partly  open ; lobes  broad, 
obtuse  to  acute.  Basin  medium  in  depth  to  rather  shallow,  rather 
narrow,  abrupt,  smooth,  symmetrical. 

Skin  thin,  tough,  pale  yellow  or  greenish,  blushed  and  marked 
with  narrow  stripes  and  splashes  of  red,  deepening  in  highly  col- 
ored specimens  to  brilliant  red,  very  attractive.  Dots  numerous, 
small,  inconspicuous,  pale  or  russet.  Prevailing  effect  bright  red. 

Calyx  tube  conical  approaching  funnel-form.  Stamens  median. 

Core  medium  to  very  small,  abaxile  or  sometimes  slightly  abax- 
ile;  cells  symmetrical,  slightly  open;  core  lines  clasping.  Carpels 
medium  to  rather  small,  roundish,  narrowing  toward  base  and 
apex,  smooth,  flat.  Seeds  moderately  dark  brown,  above  medium, 
rather  acute. 

Flesh  whitish,  sometimes  stained  with  red,  moderately  fine, 
crisp,  tender,  very  juicy,  agreeable  subacid,  sprightly,  somewhat 
aromatic,  good  to  very  good. 

Season  October  to  January. 


GRIMES 


Fruit  beautiful  rich  golden-yellow,  attractive  in  form  and  ex- 
cellent either  for  dessert  or  culinary  use.  It  can  hardly  be  called 
a standard  market  variety  but  in  some  markets  it  sells  well.  It  is 
not  a good  keeper  and  is  apt  to  scald  in  storage.  It  is  in  season 
about  with  Hubbardston.  The  tree  is  a biennial  or  sometimes  an 
annual  bearer  and  a good  cropper.  Favorable  reports  on  it  have 
been  received  from  certain  localities  in  New  York  but  generally  as 
grown  in  that  state  does  not  develop  in  size,  color  or  quality  as  well 
as  it  does  in  more  southern  latitudes,  and  there  is  a high  per- 
centage of  loss  from  drops  and  culls.  Some  few  New  York  fruit 
growers  consider  it  a fairly  profitable  variety  but  generally  it  is 
regarded  less  favorably  and  it  has  failed  to  become  a standard 
apple  either  in  the  home  orchards  or  in  the  commercial  orchards  of 
the  state.  The  indications  are  that  it  will  never  be  grown  in  New 
York  to  any  considerable  extent. 

Historical. — Originated  in  West  Virginia.  Fruit  from  the 
original  tree  was  sold  to  the  New  Orleans  traders  as  long  ago  as 
1804  (6).  It  has  become  generally  disseminated  throughout  the 

Ben  Davis  regions  of  the  south,  west  and  southwest,  where  it  is 
often  planted  for  home  use  and  is  highly  esteemed  as  a dessert 
apple,  but  it  is  not  grown  extensively  in  many  localities  in  the 
commercial  orchards.  It  has  long  been  known  in  scattering  locali- 


DescHytions  of  Colored  Plates 


223 


ties  in  New  York  and  old  trees  of  it  are  found  in  some  orchards, 
lout  it  has  not  been  generally  planted. 

Tree — Moderately  vigorous;  branches  short,  stout,  curved, 
crooked.  Form  upright  spreading  or  roundish,  inclined  to  droop, 
rather  dense.  Twigs  short  to  long,  straight,  moderately  stout;  inter, 
nodes  short.  Bark  dull  brownish,  rather  lightly  mottled  with 
scarf-skin ; pubescent  in  spots  and  at  tips.  Lenticels  scattering, 
small  to  large,  roundish  or  oblong,  not  raised,  rather  inconspicuous. 
Buds  medium,  broad,  obtuse  to  acute,  free,  varying  from  slightly 
pubescent  to  quite  pubescent. 

Fruit — Medium  to  large.  Form  roundish  oblong,  often  flattened 
at  the  ends,  sometimes  inclined  to  conic,  pretty  regular,  sometimes 
obscurely  ribbed,  sometimes  oblique,  symmetrical,  uniform;  sides 
often  unequal.  Stem  short  to  medium.  Cavity  broad,  deep,  acute 
to  acuminate,  often  russeted.  Calyx  rather  large,  closed,  lobes 
long,  reflexed,  often  separated  at  base.  Basin  abrupt,  deep  or  mod- 
erately deep,  rather  wide,  somewhat  furrowed. 

Skin  tough,  somewhat  rough,  clear  deep  yellow  with  scattering- 
pale  yellow  or  russet  dots. 

Calyx  tube  yellow,  very  broad  at  the  top,  conical,  deep.  Sta- 
mens basal. 

Core  medium  to  rather  small,  somewhat  abaxile;  cells  usually 
pretty  symmetrical,  closed,  or  somewhat  open;  core  lines  meeting 
or  somewhat  clasping.  Carpels  roundish,  ernarginate,  concave. 
Seeds  numerous,  medium  or  below,  somewhat  tufted,  plump,  acute 
to  obtuse. 

Flesh  yellow,  very  firm,  tender,  crisp,  moderately  coarse,  mod- 
erately juicy,  subacid,  rich,  aromatic,  sprightly,  very  good  to  best. 

Season  November  to  January  or  February.  Commercial  limit, 
December  or  January. 


JONATHAN 


This  is  a fruit  of  the  Esopus  Spitzenberg  class.  It  is  very 
beautiful,  of  a brilliant  red  color,  highly  flavored  and  of  excellent 
quality  for  either  dessert  or  culinary  use.  It  excels  its  parent  in 
hardiness,  productiveness,  health  and  vigor  and  is  adapted  to  a 
wider  range  of  territory,  but  the  fruit  is  not  so  large  nor  does  it 
keep  as  well  as  that  of  Esopus  Spitzenberg.  In  New  York  state  it 
does  fairly  well  in  favorable  localities  if  grown  on  rich  soil  and 
given  careful  attention  but  even  under  such  circumstances  it  does 
not  usually  attain  as  good  size  as  it  does  in  certain  portions  of 
the  valleys  of  the  Ohio,  Mississippi  and  Missouri  and  in  the  irri- 
gated districts  in  the  mountain  regions  farther  west.  As  grown 
in  New  York  it  is  ordinarily  rather  small  with  a comparatively 
high  percentage  of  uneven  and  irregular  fruit,  and  it  is  not  at  all 
adapted  to  the  general  trade.  At  its  best  it  is  one  of  the  most  de- 
sirable varieties  for  the  fancy  trade  at  the  holiday  season.  Its 
season  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  Tompkins  King.  It  may  be 
kept  through  the  winter  but  when  held  in  ordinary  storage  later 
than  January  dark  spots  are  liable  to  develop  in  the  skin  and 
seriously  injure  the  appearance  of  the  fruit.  Handled  in  this  way 
its  commercial  limit  is  December  or  early  January.  In  cold  storage 
its  commercial  limit  varies  from  January  to  March  or  sometimes 
later.  (30). 

As  grown  in  New  York  the  tree  is  but  a moderate  grower  and 


224  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


for  this  reason  it  is  well  to  top-work  it  upon  some  stock  that  is 
more  vigorous,  such  as  Northern  Spy,  Baldwin  or  Rhode  Island 
Greening.  It  does  not  grow  much  above  medium  size  and  may  be 
planted  more  closely  than  Baldwin.  Particular  attention  should  be 
given  to  keeping  the  soil  fertile,  well  supplied  with  humus  and  well 
tilled,  and  the  trees  should  be  thoroughly  protected  from  injurious 
insects  and  fungus  diseases.  Under  favorable  conditions  the  tree  is 
a reliable  cropper,  bearing  good  crops  biennially  or  in  some  cases 
almost  annually.  It  comes  into  bearing  rather  young.  Usually  the 
fruit  hangs  pretty  well  to  the  tree.  It  is  not  recommended  for 
general  commercial  planting  in  New  York  but  in  some  places  under 
good  management  it  has  proved  a profitable  variety. 

Historical. — The  first  published  account  which  we  find  of  the 
Jonathan  is  that  given  by  Judge  J.  Buel,  of  Albany,  in  1826,  in  an 
article  on  “Observations  on  the  Utility  of  a Descriptive  Catalogue 
of  Garden  and  Orchard  Fruit,”  addressed  to  the  members  of  the 
New  York  Horticultural  Society,  in  which  he  presents  “A  De- 
scriptive Catalogue  of  some  of  the  most  valuable  apples  propagated 
in  the  nurseries  of  this  state.”  In  this  catalogue  the  Jonathan  is 
listed  as  the  Esopus  Spitzenberg  (New)  with  the  synonym  Ulster 
Seedling.  (1).  In  1829  Judge  Buel  sent  specimens  of  the  fruit 
to  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society  with  the  statement  that 
it  was  “An  Esopus  seedling  and  sometimes  called  the  New  Spitzen- 
berg.” It  originated  on  the  farm  of  Mr.  Philip  Rick,  of  Woodstock, 
Ulster  county.  New  York  (7).  According  to  Downing  the  original 
tree  was  still  alive  in  1845.  It  was  at  first  disseminated  under 
various  names,  all  of  which  were  soon  superseded  by  the  name 
Jonathan  which  was  assigned  to  it  by  Judge  Buel  in  honor  of 
Jonathan  Hasbrouck  by  whom  his  attention  was  first  called  to  the 
variety.  It  has  been  widely  disseminated  throughout  the  apple- 
growing regions  of  New  York  but  in  none  of  them  is  it  grown  ex- 
tensively. It  is  extensively  planted  in  regions  farther  west  and 
south,  where,  as  above  stated,  it  is  recognized  in  many  localities  as 
one  of  the  leading  commercial  varieties. 

Tree. — Medium  in  size,  a moderately  vigorous  or  rather  slow 
grower.  Form  roundish  or  spreading,  somewhat  drooping,  rather 
dense.  Twigs  medium  in  length,  nearly  straight,  rather  slender; 
internodes  short.  Bark  dark  brownish-red  mingled  with  dark  green, 
and  heavily  coated  with  scarf-skin ; pubescent.  Lenticels  usually 
very  scattering,  sometimes  moderately  numerous,  small  to  medium 
or  sometimes  large,  roundish  to  oblong,  not  raised.  Buds  medium, 
plump,  rather  narrow,  acute  to  obtuse,  free,  pubescent.  Leaves 
medium  or  below,  rather  narrow. 

Fruit. — Medium  to  rather  small,  rarely  large.  Form  roundish 
conic  to  roundish  ovate,  often  somewhat  truncate,  regular;  pretty 
uniform  in  shape  and  size.  Stem  medium  to  long,  rather  slender. 
Cavity  acute  to  acuminate,  deep  to  very  deep,  wide,  symmetrical, 
sometimes  slightly  furrowed.  Calyx  small,  closed.  Basin  deep  to 
very  deep,  very  abrupt,  wide  to  moderately  narrow. 

Skin  thin,  tough,  smooth,  pale  bright  yellow  overlaid  with  lively 
red,  striped  with  carmine.  When  well  colored  the  fruit  is  almost 
completely  covered  with  red  which  deepens  to  purplish  on  the 
sunny  side  and  often  shows  a beautiful  contrasting  bit  of  clear  pale 
yellow  about  the  cavity  where  a twig  or  leaf  lay  in  contact  with 
the  skin.  Less  highly  colored  fruit  has  more  of  a striped  appear- 
ance particularly  toward  the  basin.  Dots  minute,  usually  inconspic- 
uous. Prevailing  effect  attractive  lively  deep  red. 

Calyx  tube  rather  small,  funnel-shape  or  sometimes  conical. 
Stamens  basal  to  median. 

Core  medium  or  below,  axile  or  nearly  so;  cells  symmetrical  but 


u;il  ot’  I iiti'l  iou  1 1 Lii’i',  Ida 


HLA'l’E  XXXII. 


xMaii 


GANO 


DescT^iptions  of  Colored  Plates 


225 


often  not  uniformly  developed,  usually  closed,  sometimes  open; 
core  lines  clasp  the  funnel  cyllinder.  Carpels  rather  concave, 
roundish  to  roundish  cordate,  emarginate,  smooth.  Seeds  rather 
large,  long,  acute  to  acuminate,  dark,  numerous. 

Flesh  whitish  or  somewhat  yellow,  sometimes  with  tinge  of  red, 
firm,  moderately  fine,  crisp,  tender,  juicy,  very  aromatic,  sprightly 
subacid,  very  good  to  best. 

Season  November  to  January  or  later. 


ELBERTA  PEACH 


Large  to  very  large,  yellow,  with  beautiful  blush;  firm,  a little 
coarse,  but  tender  ana  good.  While  quality  is  not  the  highest,  it 
has  made  more  money  for  the  orchardist  than  any  other  peach. 
Tree  a rank,  vigorous  grower,  healthy  and  fairly  hardy,  one  of  the 
most  dependable. 


WAGENER 


Wagener,  at  its  best,  is  an  apple  of  superior  excellence.  The 
color  is  a beautiful  bright  red  with  some  contrasting  pale  yellow; 
it  has  fine  texture,  high  flavor  and  excellent  quality.  It  is  very 
desirable  for  culinary  uses  but  is  especially  esteemed  for  dessert. 
It  is  in  season  about  with  Tompkins  King  or  from  October  to 
February,  yet  often  some  portion  of  the  fruit  may  be  kept  in 
ordinary  storage  till  late  in  spring.  Its  commercial  limit  is  Decem- 
ber, or,  in  cold  storage,  about  February  1.  It  does  not  stand  heat 
well  before  going  into  storage  and  is  quite  apt  to  scald  toward 
the  close  of  the  season,  particularly  if  not  well  colored.  After 
scalding  it  goes  down  quickly  (29,  30).  Often  there  is  some  loss 
from  drops,  especially  if  the  crop  is  not  picked  as  soon  as  it  is 
well  colored,  and  many  times  there  is  a rather  high  percentage 
of  loss  of  fruit  that  is  unmarketable  because  it  is  undersized  or 
misshapen.  In  the  nursery  Wagener  is  a pretty  good  grower, 
upright  and  well  formed;  in  the  orchard  it  is  quite  vigorous  at  first, 
but  as  it  advances  in  maturity  it  usually  becomes  a rather  weak 
grower,  with  branches  full  of  fruit  spurs.  It  comes  into  bearing 
at  an  early  age  and  so  long  as  it  remains  healthy  it  is  a reliable 
cropper,  yielding  moderate  to  rather  heavy  crops  biennially  or 
nearly  annually.  In  many  cases  it  overbears  so  that  the  fruit  does 
not  all  develop  properly  in  size  and  color.  Under  such  circum- 
stances it  is  a great  advantage  to  thin  the  fruit.  To  get  best 
results  the  thinning  should  be  done  as  early  as  June.  Under- 
favorable  conditions  the  crop  is  pretty  uniform  in  size,  color  and 
quality. 

The  tree  is  often  short-lived,  but  some  report  that  it  is  longer- 
lived  when  top-worked  upon  hardier  and  more  vigorous  stock,  such 
as  Northern  Spy,  Baldwin  and  Tolman  Sweet.  On  account  of  its 
dwarfish  form  and  habit  of  coming  into  bearing  at  an  early  age 
it  is  recommended  by  some  fruit  growers  as  a filler  to  plant 
between  the  rows  of  longer-lived  apple  trees.  Some  fruit  growers 
consider  it  a profitable  variety,  but  many  do  not.  Although  it  was 


226 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


introduced  about  a half  century  ago  and  it  is  now  sufficiently  well 
known  so  that  it  may  perhaps  be  regarded  as  a standard  market 
variety,  yet  it  has  not  established  itself  to  any  considerable  extent 
in  the  commercial  orchards  of  this  state  and  is  not  being  exten- 
sively planted. 

Historical. — The  first  published  reference  to  the  Wagener 
which  we  find  is  that  given  in  the  Report  of  the  New  York  State 
Agricultural  Society  for  1847,  in  which  it  is  stated  that  it  was 
awarded  second  premium  as  a seedling  of  merit  (1).  In  1848  it 
was  again  presented  for  competition  and  was  placed  by  the  com- 
mittee in  the  list  of  first  class  apples,  awarded  an  additional  prem- 
ium and  also  a diploma.  An  illustrated  description  of  it  was  pub- 
lished in  the  report  of  this  society  for  that  year  with  the  remark 
“This  very  fine  apple  the  committee  considers  a desirable  addition 
to  the  list  of  first-rate  fruits.  Its  appearance  is  prepossessing,  as 
is  also  its  size  and  form.”  (2).  An  account  of  the  history  of 
Wagener  was  also  given  in  which  it  was  stated  that  in  the  spring 
of  1791  Mr.  George  Wheeler  brought  with  him  from  Dover,  Duchess 
county,  N.  Y.,  to  Penn  Yan,  Yates  county,  a quantity  of  apple  seeds 
which  he  sowed  that  spring  in  the  nursery  upon  his  farm  which  he 
was  then  reclaiming  from  the  wilderness.  In  1796  Abraham  Wa^- 
ener,  from  whom  the  name  of  the  apple  is  derived,  bought  this 
seedling  nursery  and  planted  trees  from  it  upon  his  place  in  what 
is  now  the  village  of  Penn  Yan.  In  1848  it  was  remarked  that 
the  old  tree  was  producing  an  annual  and  abundant  yield  of  beau- 
tiful and  delicious  fruit.  It  continued  to  bear  full  crops  until  about 
the  year  1865  (15).  After  it  was  brought  to  the  notice  of  the 
State  Agricultural  society,  the  Wagener  soon  began  to  be  propa- 
gated quite  extensively  and  it  has  since  become  widely  dissemin- 
ated throughout  the  country.  In  1892  Wagener  was  being  offered 
quite  generally  by  nurserymen  throughout  the  country  except  in 
the  north  Mississippi  valley,  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  and  the 
plains  from  Nebraska  to  Texas  (22).  It  is  generally  known 
throughout  New  York,  but  is  not  planted  extensively  in  any  section 
of  the  state. 

Tree. — Dwarfish  to  medium  size,  at  first  moderately  vigorous 
but  soon  becoming  a slow  grower;  branches  short,  stout  and  filled 
with  spurs.  Form  roundish  to  spreading,  open.  Twigs  short  to 
medium,  often  somewhat  curved,  moderately  stout,  usually  quite 
blunt;  internodes  medium  to  short.  Bark  clear  dark  reddish  brown 
mingled  with  olive  green,  lightly  streaked  with  scarf-skin;  pubescent 
near  tips.  Lenticels  scattering,  medium  or  below,  elongated  or 
sometimes  roundish,  not  raised.  Buds  medium  to  rather  large, 
sometimes  projecting,  plump,  acute,  free,  pubescent. 

Fruit. — Medium  to  rather  large.  Form  oblate  to  roundish 
oblate,  broadly  ribbed  or  irregularly  elliptical;  sides  often  unequal. 
Stem  short  to  moderately  long,  moderately  thick  to  rather  slender. 
Cavity  variable,  acute,  moderately  deep  to  deep,  broad  or  sometimes 
compressed  and  rather  narrow,  often  angular  or  furrowed,  sometimes 
thinly  russeted.  Calyx  small  to  medium,  closed  or  partly  open; 
lobes  small,  usually  short,  acute  to  acuminate,  connivent,  reflexed. 
Basin  medium  in  width  and  depth,  abrupt,  somewhat  furrowed. 

Skin  thin,  tough,  smooth,  glossy,  bright  pinkish-red  striped 
with  bright  carmine  and  mottled  and  streaked  with  thin  whitish 
scarf-skin  over  a clear,  pale  yellow  background.  Dots  numerous, 
whitish  or  russet,  sometimes  mingled  with  light  russet  flecks.  Pre- 
vailing color,  bright  light  red. 

Calyx  tube  long,  rather  narrow,  funnel  form,  often  elongated 
and  extending  to  the  core.  Stamens  median  to  marginal. 

Core  below  medium  to  moderately  large,  somewhat  abaxile  with 


DescHptions  of  Colored  Plates 


227 


hollow  cylinder  in  the  axis,  carrying  to  nearly  axile;  cells  symmet- 
rical, closed  or  open;  core  lines  clasping  the  funnel  cylinder.  Car- 
pels broadly  roundish  or  approaching  elliptical,  but  little  emarginate 
if  at  all,  smooth  or  nearly  so,  mucronate.  Seeds  moderately  nu- 
merous, rather  small  to  above  medium,  short  to  moderately  long, 
moderately  wide,  obtuse,  rather  light  brown;  often  some  are  abortive. 

Flesh  whitish  slightly  tinged  with  yellow,  moderately  firm, 
rather  fine-grained,  crisp,  tender,  juicy  to  very  juicy,  subacid, 
aromatic,  sprightly,  very  good  to  best. 

Season  October  to  November,  to  February  or  later. 


ANJOU  PEAR 


Origin,  France.  Large,  obtuse  pyriform;  stem  short,  thick, 
fleshy.  Skin  greenish-yellow,  sometimes  shaded  with  dull  crimson 
and  sprinkled  thickly  with  brown  dots;  calyx  very  small,  open,  stiff, 
in  a small  basin  surrounded  with  russet.  Flesh  whitish,  melting, 
juicy,  brisk,  vinous;  late  autumn  to  early  winter.  Tree  vigorous, 
open  round  head;  fruit  evenly  distributed  and  of  uniform  size.  An 
excellent  market  variety. 


ROME 


When  well  grown  this  fruit  is  of  good  size,  uniform,  fair, 
smooth  and  handsomely  colored.  It  is  thick  skinned,  stands  handling 
remarkably  well  and  is  a good  keeper.  It  is  held  in  cold  storage 
till  May  or  later.  It  goes  down  gradually  in  storage  and  if  prop- 
erly colored  is  not  subject  to  scald  (39).  It  has  an  established 
reputation  in  market  and  sells  at  good  prices.  As  compared  with 

Baldwin  it  is  not  quite  so  good  in  quality  either  for  dessert  or  for 

culinary  uses  but  the  tree  comes  into  bearing  at  a much  earlier 

age  and  under  right  conditions  is  more  nearly  an  annual  cropper. 

It  is  not  as  well  adapted  as  Baldwin  for  general  cultivation  in 
New  York  state,  the  fruit  often  being  less  reliable  and  less  satis- 
factory in  size  and  color,  the  foliage  less  healthy  and  the  tree  less 
vigorous  and  not  so  large.  Although  it  is  an  old  variety  it  has 
not  been  sufficiently  tested  in  New  York  to  determine  the  range 
of  its  proper  cultivation.  Generally  speaking,  it  succeeds  better 
farther  south,  as,  for  example,  in  some  districts  in  New  Jersey  and 
along  the  Ohio  river.  It  appears  to  be  better  adapted  to  bottom 
lands  and  to  fertile  sandy  or  gravelly  loams  than  to  heavy  clay 
soils.  Evidently  it  develops  proper  size,  color  and  quality  more 
often  when  grown  in  southeastern  New  York  than  it  does  in  cooler 
and  more  elevated  regions  in  the  interior  of  the  state,  yet  in  some 
localities  in  western  New  York  on  warm,  fertile,  well-drained  soils 
it  attains  good  size  and  good  color  and  gives  promise  of  being  sat- 
isfactory in  commercial  orchards.  The  tree  is  apt  to  overbear  and 
in  unfavorable  locations  as  it  advances  in  maturity  there  is  often 
a considerable  loss  in  undersized  oi  noorly  colored  fruit.  Although 
it  is  a good  grower  there  appears  to  be  some  advantage  in  top- 
grafting it  upon  some  more  vigorous  stock.  When  top-worked  on 
bearing  trees  it  usually  produces  some  fruit  within  two  or  three 


228  State  Board  of  Horticultui'al  Inspection 


years  from  the  time  of  grafting  or  laudding.  The  fruit  is  supported 
by  a long  stem  and  usually  hangs  to  the  tree  remarkably  well  even 
in  high  winds.  It  is  somewhat  subject  to  the  attacks  of  the  scab 
and  requires  thorough  and  careful  preventive  treatment  in  order 
to  protect  it  from  injurious  insects  and  diseases. 

Historical. — Originated  by  H.  N.  Gillett  in  Lawrence  county, 
Ohio.  Brought  to  the  notice  of  the  Ohio  Convention  of  Fruit  Grow- 
ers in  1848  as  a new  variety  (1,  14).  It  is  holding  its  own  as  a 
profitable  commercial  variety  in  that  section  of  the  country  (31) 
and  also  in  certain  other  southern  apple-growing  districts  (30,  34, 
38),  but  Stinson  reports  that  in  Missouri  it  is  an  uncertain  bearer, 
and  not  a safe  variety  to  recommend  for  general  planting  although 
some  Missouri  fruit  growers  recommend  it  for  planting  in  some 
locations  (34).  Although  occasionally  old  trees  of  this  variety  are 
found  in  New  York,  Rome  is  as  yet  but  little  known  among  New 
York  fruit  growers.  Within  recent  years  it  has  been  planted  or 
grafted  in  commercial  orchards  to  a limited  extent  and  for  the 
most  part  in  an  experimental  way. 

Tree. — Tree  not  a very  strong  grower  in  the  nursery  but  in 
the  orchard  it  is  rather  vigorous  and  attains  good  medium  size. 
Form  at  first  upright  but  later  it  is  roundish  to  somewhat  spread- 
ing and  drooping,  with  rather  slender  lateral  branches.  Twigs 
moderately  stout,  sometimes  slender,  moderately  long;  internodes 
short.  Bark  mottled  in  brownish-red  and  green,  rather  bright. 
Lenticels  medium  to  large,  scattering,  conspicuous,  round  to  oblong, 
raised.  Buds  deeply  set  in  bark,  very  short,  broad,  obtuse,  ap- 
pressed.  Leaves  rather  long;  foliage  not  particularly  robust. 

Fruit. — Fruit  medium  to  very  large,  usually  averaging  above 
medium,  pretty  uniform  in  size  and  shape.  Form  roundish  to 
roundish-conic  or  slightly  oblong,  regular  or  faintly  ribbed,  usually 
symmetrical  but  sometimes  wit^h  sides  unequal.  Stem  character- 
istically long,  slender,  and  often  oblique.  Cavity  medium  to  rather 
large,  characteristically  obtuse  and  smooth,  moderately  shallow  to 
rather  deep,  wide,  sometimes  compressed  or  lipped,  often  gently 
furrowed,  green  or  red,  never  russeted.  Calyx  rather  small  to 
medium,  closed  or  somewhat  open;  lobes  usually  converging  above 
but  slightly  separated  toward  the  base.  Basin  small  to  medium, 
shallow  to  a moderately  deep,  narrow  to  medium  in  width,  some- 
times abrupt,  usually  a little  furrowed  or  wrinkled. 

Skin  thick,  tough,  smooth,  yellow  or  greenish,  more  or  less 
mottled  with  bright  red  which  in  highly  colored  specimens  deepens 
to  almost  solid  red  on  the  exposed  cheek,  striped  with  bright  car- 
mine. Dots  rather  numerous,  whitish  or  brown,  small.  Prevailing 
effect,  red,  or  red  mingled  with  yellow  . 

Calyx  tube  cone-shape  or  approaching  short  truncate  funnel 
form,  often  with  fleshy  pistil  point  projecting  into  the  base.  Sta- 
mens marginal  to  median. 

Core  medium  to  large,  abaxile;  cells  sometimes  unsymmetrical, 
open;  core  lines  meeting  or  slightly  clasping.  Carpels  roundish  to 
ovate,  narrowing  both  toward  base  and  apex,  sometimes  obtusely 
emarginate,  mucronate.  Seeds  numerous,  medium  in  size,  plump, 
acute  to  somewhat  obtuse,  slightly  tufted,  light  and  dark  brown. 

Flesh  nearly  white,  with  slight  tinge  of  yellow  or  green,  firm, 
moderately  fine-grained  to  a little  coarse,  rather  crisp,  juicy, 
slightly  aromatic,  agreeable  mild  subacid,  commonly  good  but  not 
high  in  quality. 

Season  November  to  April  or  May. 


Descriptions  of  Colored  Plates 


229 


GANG 

This  is  a variety  of  the  Ben  Davis  type.  In  the  nursery  the 
tree  resembles  Ben  Davis  very  closely.  As  grown  in  western  New 
York  the  fruit  is  more  highly  colored,  but  on  the  average  is  some- 
what smaller  than  that  of  Ben  Davis.  It  is  less  striped  in  appear- 
ance and  more  of  a solid,  deep  red  color,  often  with  a contrast- 
ing spot  of  clear  yellow  where  it  has  been  closely  covered  by  a 
leaf  or  twig.  In  this  respect  and  in  its  deep,  abrupt  basin  it  sug- 
gests Jonathan,  as  at  times  it  also  does  by  its  brilliant,  deep  red 
or  purnlish  color.  It  is  very  attractive  in  appearance,  stands  han- 
dling well  and  is  a good  keeper.  In  quality  it  is  perhaps  a little 
superior  to  Ben  Davis.  The  tree  comes  into  bearing  young,  and  is 
an  excellent  cropper,  bearing  regularly  and  abundantly.  It  has  not 
been  tested  very  many  years  in  New  York,  but  it  appears  to  be 
adapted  to  about  the  same  region  as  Ben  Davis. 

Historical.  Origin  obscure.  Brought  to  notice  in  Missouri 
about  twenty-five  years  ago  and  disseminated  under  the  name  Gano 
(1,  5,  6).  It  is  supposed  by  some  that  the  original  stock  came  from 
Kentucl^.  (5).  Some  believe  that  Gano  is  the  same  as  Black  Ben 
Davis.  It  certainly  resembles  Black  Ben  Davis  very  closely  but  the 
preponderance  of  evidence  at  present  seems  to  favor  the  opinion 
that  it  is  of  distinct  origin  (16). 

Tree — Tree  moderately  vigorous;  branches  long,  moderately 
stout  and  inclined  to  droop;  laterals  willowy,  short,  slender.  Form 
like  that  of  Ben  Davis,  upright,  spreading,  becoming  somewhat 
drooping,  rather  dense.  Twigs  short  to  rather  long,  somewhat 
curved,  markedly  geniculate,  moderately  stout;  internodes  short  to 
rather  long.  Bark  bright  brownish-red  mingled  with  olive-green, 
lightly  overcast  with  mottled  and  streaked  gray  scarf-skin;  pubes- 
cent. Lenticels  not  conspicuous,  scattering,  medium,  round  to 
ovate  or  often  elongated,  slightly  raised.  Buds  small  to  medium 
with  prominent  shoulder,  plump,  obtuse,  appressed,  decidedly  pubes- 
cent, deeply  set  in  bark. 

Fruit — Fruit  medium  to  sometimes  large.  Form  roundish 
conic,  usually  regular,  sjnnmetrical ; uniform  in  size  and  shape. 
Stem  medium  to  long  and  slender.  Cavity  acute,  deep,  rather  broad, 
symmetrical,  sometimes  slightly  furrowed  or  compressed,  usually  with 
radiating  green  russet  or  red  russet.  Calyx  medium  or  above, 
closed  or  partly  open;  pubescent;  lobes  rather  broad,  acute  to 
acuminate.  Basin  abrupt,  moderately  narrow  to  rather  wide,  often 
deep. 

Skin  smooth,  waxy,  clear  light  yellow,  mottled  and  blushed  with 
bright  light  pinkish-red  often  deepening  to  a purplish-red,  more  or 
less  obscurely  striped.  Dots  numerous,  small,  inconspicuous.  Pre- 
vailing color  fine  red. 

Calyx  tube  short,  cone-shape  with  fleshy  pistil  point  projecting 
into  its  base,  or  sometimes  elongated  funnel-form.  Stamens  median 
to  marginal.  Core  below  medium  to  large,  somewhat  abaxile  with 
a comparatiyely  rather  wide  hollow  cylinder  at  the  axis;  cells 
closed,  or  partly  open,  usually  symmetrical  but  often  not  uniformly 
developed;  core  lines  meeting  when  the  calyx  tube  is  cone-shape 
but  clasping  the  funnel-cylinder  when  it  is  funnel-form.  Carpels 
broadly  roundish  or  elongated,  slightly  tufted,  emarginate.  Seeds 
numerous,  broad,  obtuse,  large,  dark,  sometimes  tufted. 

Flesh  whitish  slightly  tinged  with  yellow,  firm,  moderately 
tender,  rather  coarse,  moderately  crisp,  juicy,  mild  subacid,  good 
or  nearly  good  in  quality. 

Season  about  the  same  as  that  of  Ben  Davis,  extending  from 
December  to  May  in  western  New  York.  Commercial  limit  in  com- 
mon storage  March,  in  cold  storage  April. 


230  State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 
NORTHWESTERN  GREENING 


Attractive  in  color  for  a green  or  yellowish  apple  but  apt  to 
be  variable  in  size  and  not  uniform  in  shape.  It  is  hardier  than 
Rhode  Island  Greening  and  on  that  account  some  consider  it  worthy 
of  cultivation  in  districts  where  the  climate  is  too  severe  for  the 
Rhode  Island  Greening.  The  fruit  has  a serious  fault  in  that  the 
flesh  within  the  core  lines  is  apt  to  be  corky  and  discolored.  It 
cooks  evenly  and  quickly  and  when  cooked  has  a fine  yellow  color 
but  is  not  of  high  flavor  or  quality,  being  much  inferior  in  this 
respect  to  Rhode  Island  Greening.  As  a desert  apple  it  ranks 
fair  to  good  in  quality.  At  this  station  it  has  not  been  a satisfac- 
tory keeper  in  common  storage,  the  rate  of  loss  being  high  in  No- 
vember and  sometimes  in  December,  moderate  through  the  winter 
and  gradually  rising  to  high  or  very  high  in  the  closing  weeks  of 
its  season.  A large  part  of  the  fruit  does  not  reach  prime  con- 
dition before  January,  a considerable  portion  of  it  remains  sound 
until  the  close  of  the  winter  and  some  of  it  may  keep  till  June. 
The  tree  is  hardy,  vigorous,  a fine  erect  grower  in  the  nursery, 
and  a good,  strong  grower  in  the  orchard.  It  does  not  come  into 
bearing  very  early  but  eventually  becomes  productive  and  is  a re- 
liable biennial  cropper. 

Historical. — Originated  in  Waupaca  county,  Wisconsin.  Intro- 
duced in  1872  by  E.  W.  Daniels.  It  has  been  pretty  widely  dis- 
seminated throughout  the  northern  portions  of  the  apple  belt  where 
very  hardy  trees  are  desired.  It  has  as  yet  been  planted  very  little 
in  New  York. 

Tree. — Vigorous,  with  moderately  long,  stout,  crooked  branches. 
Form  upright,  becoming  quite  roundish  or  spreading,  inclined  to 
droop,  dense.  Twigs  moderately  long,  curved,  stout,  with  large 
terminal  buds ; internodes  medium  to  long.  Bark  clear  reddish- 
brown,  lightly  mottled  with  scarf-skin,  lightly  pubescent.  Lenticels 
quite  numerous,  medium  to  large,  oval  or  elongated,  raised,  very 
conspicuous,  pale  and  contrasting  clearly  with  the  bright  smooth 
bark.  Buds  large,  broad,  plump,  obtuse,  free,  projecting,  slightly 
pubescent. 

Fruit. — Medium  to  large  or  very  large,  variable  in  size  and 
form.  Form  commonly  roundish  but  varying  to  oblong  or  to 
oblate  and  often  inclined  to  conic,  more  or  less  irregular,  sometimes 
elliptical,  sometimes  ribbed.  Stem  medium  to  short.  Cavity  rather 
small  to  large,  acute  to  acuminate,  moderately  narrow  to  wide,  deep, 
often  compressed  or  lipped,  often  with  outspreading  russet.  Calyic 
variable,  small  to  large,  closed  or  open.  Basin  small  to  large, 
narrow  to  wide,  usually  abrupt,  moderately  deep,  furrowed  and 
wrinkled. 

Skin  smooth,  somewhat  waxy,  clear  pale  yellow  or  greenish, 
sometimes  faintly  blushed.  Dots  varjnng  from  small  to  large  and 
irregular,  usually  whitish  and  submerged,  sometimes  gray  with 
russet  point.  Prevailing  effect  clear  yellow  or  greenish. 

Calyx  tube  moderately  wide,  conical  or  approaching  urn-shape. 
Stamens  median. 

Core  medium  or  above,  usually  abaxile  or  nearly  so,  cells  usu- 
ally symmetrical,  closed  or  sometimes  open;^  core  lines  meeting  or 
somewhat  clasping.  Carpels  broadly  roundish,^  truncate  at  base, 
narrowing  toward  the  apex,  mucronate,  but  slightly  marginate,  if 
at  all.  Seeds  very  small,  variable  in  shape;  often  some  are 
abortive. 

Flesh  tinged  with  yellow,  medium  in  texture,  crispness  and 
firmness,  juicy,  with  slight  aroma,  mild  subacid,  fair  to  good. 


Idaho  Spraying  Calendar 


232 


State  Board  of  Horticultural  Inspection 


Insect  or  Disease. 

Plant  Attacked 

What  to  Spray  With 

1 Codling  Moth  

Apple,  pear  

Arsenate  of  lead  or 
white  arsenate  

2 San  Jose  Scale  

Nearly  all  deciduous 
trees  

Sulphur-lime  wash  

3 Oyster  Shell  Bark 

Louse  

Apples,  mainly 

Sulphur-lime  wash  

4 Peach  Worm  or  Twig 
Borer  

Peach,  sometimes  plum, 
apple  and  cherry. 

Sulphur-lime  wash  

5 Green  Aphis  

Apple,  plum,  prune. 

Sulphur-lime  wash  

6 Black  Aphis  

7 Wooly  Aphis  

Cherry  and  peach 

Whale  oil  and  quassia 
chips  or  black  leaf 
tobacco  dip;  1 part 
to  70  parts  water  

Apple  

S Aphis  

Hop,  rose,  house  plant 
etc 

Whale  oil  and  quassia  .. 

9 Cabbage  Worm  

Cabbage,  cauliflower  

Paris  green  dust  

10  Cabbage  Aphis  

Turnip  and  Cabbage  

Whale  oil  and  quassia.. 

Arsenate  of  lead  or 
white  arsenate  

11  Slug  

Pear  

12  Slug  

Cherry  

Arsenate  of  lead  or 
white  arsenate  

13  Red  Spider  

14  Blister  Mite  

Fruit  trees  and  bushes 

Sulphur-lime  wash  

Pear  leaf  

Sulphur-lime  wash  

15  Peach  Tree  Borer  .... 

Peach  and  prune  

16  Flathead  Borer  

Apple,  mainly  

17  Cottony  Scale  

Maple,  currant  and  pop- 
lar   

Kerosene  emulsion  

1 3 Scab  

Apple,  pear  

1 part  lime  and  sul- 
phur to  25  parts 
water  

19  T'Cnf  Giirl  

Peach  

Sulphur-lime  wash. 

Add  salt  

20  Peach  Mildew  

Peach  

Weak  solution  sulphur- 
1 lime  wash  

21  Gooseberry  Mildew  .. 

Gooseberry  

jweak  solution  sulphur- 
lime  wash  

Idaho  Spraying  Calendar 


233 


FIriit  Spraying: 

Notes. 

While  the  blossoms  are  fall- 
ing. Spray  with  force  di- 
rectly into  every  flower. 
Use  a Bordeaux  nozzle. 

Repeat  when  first  brood  of  eggs  are 
hatching.  Spray  third  time  three  weeks 
after  the  first  worms  appear  under 
the  bands  and  again  three  weeks  later 

In  the  spring  before  the  buds 
burst  

Be  sure  and  cover  every  portion  of 
the  tree  as  this  spray  only  kills  by 
contact. 

When  the  leaves  are  off  the 
trees  

After  the  eggs  under  the  scales 
hatch  (May  15  to  June  15)  spraying 
with  kerosene  emulsion  1 part  to  10 
parts  water  or  whale  oil  soap  1 Ib 
to  5 gallons  water  is  effective. 

Just  as  the  buds  swell  in  the 
spring  

When  the  leaves  are  off  the 
trees  

When  the  insects  appear  whale  oil 
soap  and  quassia  chips  or  tobacco  sheep 
dip  are  the  most  effective  remedies. 

When  the  insects  appear  and 
before  they  curl  the  leaves 

Remove  the  soil  about  two  feet 
around  the  trunk  and  dissolve  a pound 
of  lye  in  a bucket  of  water  or  use 
prepared  solution  of  lime  and  sulphur 
in  proportion  of  1 part  L-S  to  5 
parts  water  and  pour  on  the  exposed 
roots,  covering  immediately  with  dirt. 

When  the  Insects  appear  

Repeat  if  necessary. 

Before  the  worms  eat  into 
the  cabbage  

Make  dust  of  one  part  Paris  green 
and  25  parts  bran  or  flour. 

Just  as  soon  as  the  Insects 
appear  

Repeat  if  necessary. 

When  the  Insects  appear  

Spray  early  in  the  season 
when  the  fruit  is  nicely 
formed  

If  you  wait  until  insects  appear  the 
fruit  is  ready  to  pick  which  makes  it 
undesirable  to  spray  at  this  time. 

When  the  leaves  are  off  the 
trees  

This  will  kill  the  winter  eggs.  If 
the  mite  appears  in  summer,  use  the 
kerosene  emulsion. 

When  the  leaves  are  off  the 
trees  

Dig  out  the  worms  in  fall  and  spring 
with  a knife.  During  growing  season 
whitewash  base  of  trunk. 

Dig  out  the  worms  in  fall  and  spring 
with  a knife.  During  growing  season 
whitewash  base  of  trunk. 

When  insects  become  cottony 
(May)  

Add  more  soap  than  the  formula 
calls  for.  Repeat  10  to  12  days  later 
if  necessary. 

Tust  before  the  blossoms  open. 

Again  while  the  last  blossoms  are 
falling.  Spray  once  or  twice  during 
the  season,  later  if  thought  necessary. 

Just  before  the  buds  open  .... 

Be  sure  and  add  the  salt  to  the  lime 
and  sulphur  mixture. 

Just  Before  the  buds  burst. 

Just  as  the  buds  burst  

Repeat  when  the  fruit  is  well  set. 

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